Finland is a land of berries. For centuries, berries have been picked
from the wild and used as a welcome supplement to the Finnish diet. Over
the years numerous Finnish old wives' tales have extolled the healthy
effects of berries. In recent years, scientific data gathered from
research on healthy substances of berries has proven many of these to
have been correct. Thus, the importance of berries in the Finnish diet is
not likely to diminish in the future. On the contrary, it may even
increase.
This paper reviews the history and present state of the currant
family, one of the most important groups of Finnish berries. It is
generally known that black and red currants belong to this group, but it
also includes red and white gooseberries and white and green currants. All
these species are grown in Finland today. How and when did Finns begin
cultivating currants, and how well have currants adapted to the harsh
Finnish climate? Why are currants grown in Finland, and how are the
berries used? How have the cultivating techniques and the production of
currants in Finland developed over the years? Is Finnish currant
production economically viable? Can it compete in the competitive
international market?
Finally, what are the Finnish consumer attitudes towards currant
products? Do consumers know and value the benefits of currant products?
Traditionally, Finns have preserved currants at home, and made juices,
jellies, and various delicacies from currants for own consumption. Will
Finns still preserve currants and use currant products in the future?
The early history of currant production in Finland: from manors
to parsonages and farmyards
Currants are bush berries that belong to the Ribes family
(Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 271-276). The group of currants that are
grown for berry production includes four colour-variants of currants and
two colour-variants of their near relative, the gooseberry. The European
black currant, three species of red currants and the European gooseberry
grow wild in Europe (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 272-276). The white
currant is a colour-variant of the red currant, and is said to have been
known already in the 17th century (Matala 17). The green
currant is a colour-variant of the black currant. It is a newcomer
compared to the other currants; it is a product of a Finnish breeding
programme and was introduced by MTT Agrifood Research Finland in 1987
(Matala 15).
Currants were known long before their cultivation for berry production
began (Matala 17-18; Meurman 208 - 214). During the 16th
century gooseberry bushes were planted in gardens for berry production in
the northern parts of Central Europe and in the British Isles (Matala 18).
It is estimated that cultivation of red and white currants for berry
production began in Central Europe during the 16th century as
well (Matala 17).
In Scandinavia the gooseberry and the red currant became known among
manor owners in the 17th century as species cultivated for
berry production (Matala 17-18; Alanko and Kahila 10-13). The black
currant, on the other hand, was regarded merely as a medicinal plant in
those days (Matala 14). Leaves, roots and berries of black currant bushes
were used for various medicinal purposes (Lokonen and Köppä 29). Thus,
black currants were grown for medicinal use in manors that had separate
patches for herbs and medicinal plants (Meurman 211; Alanko and Kahila
10-13). In Scandinavia, black currants were grown chiefly for berry
production first during the 18th century (Alanko and Kahila 12;
Meurman 211; Matala 14), and the species gained in importance first in the
19th century (Matala 14; Meurman 212).
The gooseberry was known as a delicacy throughout the area of its
cultivation, and gooseberries were the most widely known of all currant
species from the 16th century up until the 19th
century (Matala 18-19; Meurman 208). In fact, growing and breeding
gooseberries was a popular recreational activity during the
19th century, particularly among English gentlemen. New
cultivars were constantly developed, and the bushes were tended carefully
to achieve a maximum berry-size. Berries were weighed with letter-scales,
and the results were compared between enthusiasts. This hobby spread to
other European countries, including Finland, during the
late-19th century (Meurman 209).
Both red and white currants were known in the 16th century,
although at that time they were not as popular as gooseberries. However,
the oldest red currant cultivar that is still in cultivation today was
described in a British horticultural publication as early as in the
mid-17th century (Matala 17). The number of cultivars on the
market of any given species can be seen as an indication of the popularity
of the species. Even as late as in 1866 only 9 red currant cultivars were
mentioned by a famous English fruit and berry specialist, whereas 185
gooseberry cultivars were listed in 1825 (Meurman 208, 214).
During the 17th and 18th centuries, currants were
merely a hobby for wealthy manor owners in Finland (Meurman 214; Alanko
and Kahila 10-13; Simonen 49). They were seen as luxury items; something
that was not accessible to the common people who were struggling to get
any food on their tables. However, the growing of currants spread
gradually from manor estates to parsonages through social contacts and the
education of clergymen during the 18th century (Alanko and
Kahila 12; Simonen 65), and from there, during the 19th
century, to the yards of common country people (Meurman 214; Simonen 102 -
103).
During the 19th century the importance of gardening
increased with increasing wealth, particularly among townspeople (Simonen
66), and the first Finnish gardening societies and gardening schools were
established (Alanko and Kahila 13). During the late 19th
century and the first decades of the 20th century the Finnish
school system developed vigorously. It became popular to establish gardens
and nurseries in connection with school buildings. Thus, active school
masters helped spread the knowledge - and plant material - of new, healthy
crops from the late-19th century onwards (Alanko and Kahila 29
- 31).
The development of currant production from a hobby to commercial
production
Although red and black currants can be found in the wild in Finland, plant
material was mainly imported from Central Europe and from Russia even as
late as in the 19th century (Alanko and Kahila 13). Thus,
international gardening trends had a strong influence in Finland. Trade
was active between North America and Europe in the 19th
century, and plant material was exchanged frequently. However, as a
result, plant diseases also spread rather quickly from one continent to
the other. This proved to be fatal for the European gooseberry. At the
turn of the century, during the very early years of the 20th
century, a disease called gooseberry mildew spread from the United States
to Europe (Meurman 209). In Finland the disease spread in a few years from
the active eastern seaport city of Viipuri1 to the Finnish capital Helsinki, causing the
destruction of most gooseberry plants on its way (Meurman 209 - 210). The
European gooseberry was fully susceptible to this disease. The cultivation
of the gooseberry never really recovered from this blow in Europe,
although new disease-resistant cultivars were gradually developed by
crossing the European gooseberry with disease-resistant American wild
gooseberry species (Meurman 210).
The European gooseberry cultivars of the 19th century had
extremely large berries. The world record size of gooseberry berries was
weighed in 1852, when a berry of the 'London' gooseberry cultivar weighed
57.9 grams. The American wild species, on the other hand, are
disease-resistant, but have small and sour berries. The cross-breed
cultivars have qualities from both parents, and the berry size is not as
large as in the old European cultivars (Meurman 209 - 210). The average
berry size of the cross-breed gooseberry cultivars used in Finland today
is 7.7 grams (Matala 41).
Although gooseberry production declined during the early
20th century, the production of other currant species was
spreading throughout Europe. It is known that the production of black
currants increased in the mid-19th century, particularly in
the British Isles (Meurman 211). Berry wine, juice and jelly were produced
from the berries. In Finland, black currant production increased rapidly
with the developing domestic berry industry after Finland became
independent in 1917 (Matala 14). Furthermore, the increasing knowledge
about the importance of vitamins in the diet and the discovery of the
black currant's high vitamin C content increased the popularity of currant
products (Meurman 212).
The popularity of these products in the UK increased so much during the
first decades of the 20th century that domestic production
could no longer meet the demand. Thus, black currants were imported to the
UK from Denmark, Norway and Canada. There were talks of exporting black
currants from Finland to the UK, too, but the Second World War changed the
plans (Meurman 211).
In the late 1950s, the Finnish berry industry encouraged growers to
enter into currant cultivation contracts. The pioneers in the Finnish
berry industry were Huhtamäki Oy2, Orion
Oy, Chymos and Saarioinen Oy (Matala 5). These companies' investment in
currant products, together with the broad-based, government-funded HERKO
cooperation project in the late 1970s, resulted in a rapid development of
currant cultivation techniques in Finland (Ackrén 51-52; Liskola et al.
V-IX). The specific goal of the HERKO project was to establish the
prerequisites and the impact of machine harvesting of currants in Finland
(Liskola et al. VI).
In machine harvesting, the machine moves along a row of berry bushes,
engulfs the whole bush (or one half of the bush in some smaller models),
and shakes the berries off the bush onto plates, from where the berries
are transported through a cleaning device via conveyors into plastic
boxes (Picture 1). Machine harvesting facilitated the modernising of the
whole concept of currant production, which resulted in larger
cultivations per farm and an increased yield per hectare3 (Ackrén 51-52;
Liskola et al. V-IX).
Picture 1. Machine harvesting of white currants.
Photo: Saija Suomaa
| |
Today, the black currant is still clearly the most important currant
species in Finland, followed by red and white currants. The green currant
and the gooseberry, both of which are grown commercially on less than 100
hectares in present-day Finland, are less significant. In 2008 black and
green currants were produced on altogether 1887 hectares (Tike 52). The
area of green currants harvested is not given separately in the official
horticultural statistics of 2008, but in 2007 green currants were
produced on 87 hectares (Vilander, Marjahinnat). Red currants were
produced on 195 hectares and white currants on 108 hectares in 2008 (Tike
53).
Gooseberries are so rarely grown commercially today that they are no
longer covered separately in Finnish horticultural statistics (Tike 52-
53), but in 2007 there were 34 hectares of commercial gooseberry
production (Vilander, Marjahinnat). The area under currant
cultivation is not great, but currant production has significant
importance to the economic situation of farmers in certain parts of
Finland, most notably in eastern Finland (Matala 5; Liskola et al. V-IX).
Currant species grown in different parts of Finland today
Of all currant species that are grown in Finland, the black currant is the
most winter-hardy, and can be grown successfully in the whole of Finland
(Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 274). The red currant, together with its
white colour-variant, is a little more susceptible to the harsh northern
climate in Finland, and the gooseberry is the most susceptible of all
currants that are produced for berry production (Hämet-Ahti et al.,
Suomen 272-275).
Black currant bushes are frequently found in gardens as far north as in
the Tornio River valley in western Finland, and in Kainuu region in the
east (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 274). There are some 50 hectares of
commercial cultivations of currants in Kainuu region (Picture 2), most
of which are black currants. Even Lappi region has a few hectares of
commercial currant cultivation, all of which are black currants (Tike 52-
53).
|
Picture 2. Map of Finland: current regions marked with
thin lines and former administrative provinces marked with bold
lines
(map source: Kartta).
|
The black currant cultivars of today are largely based on one single
wild species: Ribes nigrum L., although some closely related wild
species have been used in breeding programmes in the past few decades to
increase winter-hardiness, disease resistance and yield (Matala 14-15).
The wild black currant, Ribes nigrum L. has a wide area of natural
distribution in the northern and central parts of Asia and Europe,
including the whole of Finland. However, in the northernmost
municipalities of Finland: Enontekiö, Inari and Utsjoki, black currants
found in nature are considered to have spread from gardens into the wild,
and have thus originated from cultivated plants (Hämet-Ahti et al.,
Suomen 274).
The red currant cultivars, in turn, have been developed from three wild
species: Ribes petraeum Wulf., the rock currant; Ribes
spicatum R., the downy currant; and Ribes rubrum L., the
western red currant (Matala 16-17). The rock currant, Ribes
petraeum Wulf., originates from the Alps and other mountainous areas
in southern Europe, which may have given it its English name.
The downy currant, Ribes spicatum R., has a more northern area
of natural distribution, stretching through the northern parts of Europe
to the central and northern parts of Asia. The English name of the species
may derive from the thin hair that covers its young branches and leaves.
The western red currant Ribes rubrum L. has its area of natural
distribution in the very central parts of Europe (Hämet-Ahti et al.,
Suomen 272).
Although all three species have been used to create the modern red
currant cultivars, it is the western red currant that has given its name
to the cultivated red currant, which is usually referred to in botanical
connections as the Ribes rubrum group (Matala 11; Hämet-Ahti et
al., Suomen 272).
Of the three wild red currant species, only the downy currant's
(Ribes spicatum R.) area of natural distribution extends as far as
to the northernmost parts of Finland, whereas the area of natural
distribution of Ribes petraeum Wulf. and Ribes rubrum L. is
more southern, and does not extend into Finland at all (Hämet-Ahti et
al., Suomen 272). It is said that Ribes x pallidum Otto &
Dietr., a crossing between Ribes spicatum R. and Ribes
petraeum Wulf., has played an important role in the development of the
old red currant cultivars that are most significant in Finland even today
(Matala 11).
Compared to the other fruit and berry species that are significant in
Finland, such as the apple (Malus domestica), the strawberry
(Fragaria x ananassa) and the raspberry (Rubus idaeus), it
can be said that black and red currants are the best adapted of them all
to the harsh Finnish climate (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 234, 204;
Hämet-Ahti et al., Retkeilykasvio 258).
The European gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa L.), on the other
hand, is a more southern species, with a natural area of distribution
stretching from the central and southern parts of Europe to the Middle
East and western parts of Asia. Thus, the European gooseberry is not as
winter-hardy as its two near relatives, the black currant and the red
currant (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 275). However, the old
gooseberry cultivars that are grown in Finland today are crossings between
the European gooseberry and some American wild species. These cultivars
are more winter-hardy and disease-resistant than the original wild
European gooseberry and the cultivars that were grown in Europe until the
20th century (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 275-276; Matala
18-19).
Conditions required for successful currant production
Currant production can be quite extensively mechanised, which is the
main reason why many Finnish farmers who have no experience in berry
production, but are looking for new crop alternatives, are tempted to
begin with currants (Matala 6). It is, however, quite a different thing
to grow traditional, annual field crops compared to any of the berry
species. For one thing, berries are perennial plants, and the conditions
during the previous growing season affect the yield of the next growing
season (Matala 22, 32-36). Furthermore, berry bushes require more than
one year, sometimes several years, until the plants are big enough to
produce significantly. Thus, the grower needs to be able to plan ahead
and to be more persistent with berries than with traditional, annual
field crops such as oats, barley, rye or wheat. In addition, not all
fields are suitable for berry crops. All berry species, including
currants, require favourable habitats to grow well and to produce good
yields (Leskinen 12-13).
Currants prefer moist, lush growth habitats in the wild (Hämet-Ahti et
al., Suomen 272-276). Thus, currants should preferably be grown on
warm mineral soil with good moisture properties. On the other hand,
currants do not like 'wet feet', so drainage must be working well
(Leskinen 12; Matala 62). Medium fine sand containing a proper amount of
organic matter would be ideal, as well as medium fine till-derived soil
(Matala 137). These soil types are common in eastern Finland (Elonen 14),
as well as hilly fields of moderate size. Hills are advantageous because
they are warmer than the surroundings (Leskinen 12-13). Moderate sized
fields surrounded by forests suit well for currant production, because the
forest shields the bushes against hard wind, and offers protection for
pollinators (Matala 139-140). An abundance of these, together with the
opportune soil types explains why berry production thrives in eastern
Finland (Matala 5; Tike 50, 52 - 53). In addition, the numerous lakes in
eastern Finland (Kartat) provide water for irrigation and even up
temperatures in spring and in autumn.
Cultivating currants on clay soil and on flat or low-lying lands is
more challenging, particularly because of poorer moisture properties,
compactness of the soil (Matala 136), and susceptibility to frost due to
the topography (Leskinen 12). Unfortunately, these conditions prevail in
the southern and western parts of Finland (Elonen 10; Kartat).
Currants are in bloom very early in spring: on average from mid-May to
mid-June in Finland, depending on the location. Blooming lasts for two to
two and a half weeks, depending on the weather (Matala 36). Spring frosts
can be a problem, because there is no effective and profitable technique
to protect currant flowers against frost (Matala 39-41, 209). In recent
years, spring frosts have been very common (Salo). For example in Kanta-
Häme region there have been mild or even severe spring frosts in four
consecutive years from 2006 - 2009 (Suomaa). Spring frosts can have
drastic effects on yield (Matala 39).
The amount of rainfall in Finland is on the average sufficient for
currant cultivation, but spring and early summer are usually very dry,
especially in south-western Finland (Sade; Kevät). For this reason it is
well advised to provide irrigation for currant bushes, particularly if the
moisture properties of the soil are poor. Currants can be grown
successfully without irrigation on soils with good moisture properties. It
is, however, beneficial to irrigate less-than-two-year-old bushes on all
soils (Matala 200).
From small-scale handpicking to modernised, intensive
production
When commercial currant production increased in the 1920s, production was
still very much based on small-scale cultivation, and harvesting was done
by hand. During the 1960s cultivation techniques were improved in order to
increase productivity of the cultivations (Achrén 70). Some relatively
effective techniques were developed to reduce the number of workers
required during harvesting. The most effective of these techniques was to
shake the berries from the bushes with the help of a rubber stick,
collecting the falling berries and leaves in a fibreglass tub set
underneath the bush (Picture 3) (Leskinen 50). It is estimated that the
number of workers needed to harvest one hectare of currants by hand has
been around 180 - 250 people. In comparison, the number of workers needed
to harvest the same bushes with help of the rubber stick and a fibreglass
tub is estimated to be only 40 to 50 people (Liskola et al. V).
Picture 3. Harvesting berries with a rubber stick, the falling berries and
leaves collected in a fibreglass tub beneath the bush
(photo source:
Matala 254).
| |
During the 1960s there were attempts to mechanise harvesting by shaking
the berries from the bushes with the help of an electric device that had
been developed from an electric saw. The berries were gathered on a
plastic container set underneath the bush. This method proved not to be
very practical because it was not easy to move around with the required
long cables (Leskinen 49-50).
Harvesting machines were developed actively throughout the world in the
1970s, in Finland as well. Development was very quick, and soon there
were various automated machines in use. There were machines that were
pulled by a tractor and machines with their own engines (Leskinen 50-51;
Matala 114-121).The first fully automated harvesting machine that was
used in Finland in 1975 was the British Pattenden Saddle Harvester
(Leskinen 51). The Pattenden harvester had its own engine; it engulfed
the entire currant bushes and shook the berries onto plates, from where
the berries were transferred through a cleaning device to transport boxes
via conveyors. Only a driver and two workers to fill the boxes were
required to harvest one hectare of currants (Leskinen 50-51; Liskola et
al. V).
The first Finnish harvesting machines, with the Joonas trademark, were
in use in 1979. The operational principle of these machines was very
similar to the one in the British Pattenden machine. In 1999 it was
estimated that there were 30 harvesting machines altogether in Finland,
of which most were with the Finnish Joonas trademark (Matala 114). The
company that owns the Joonas trademark, Rakennustempo Oy2, has actively
developed the machine. The modern models have a number of accessories,
which enable them to be switched from a harvesting machine into a
mistblower sprayer or a pruning unit by changing a device inside the
machine (Matala 115).
Machine harvesting changed the whole concept of currant production. In
the earlier system, based on hand-picking, bushes were planted equal
distances from one another, with two meters between the plants on all
sides. Thus the number of plants per hectare amounted to 2500 (Leskinen
29). However, gradually the planting system changed while a more
intensive use of land was striven at, and bushes were planted more
clearly in rows. With machine harvesting, the rows became denser, and
today around 4000 plants are planted per hectare (Matala 181). With
smaller machinery the space between the rows can also be smaller, and
even more plants can be planted per hectare (Matala 181). However, it is
often so that the same machines are used for tending other crops than
currants as well; the machinery is not chosen solely on the basis of the
needs of currants (Suomaa).
With hand-picking, the bushes could stretch in all directions, and
maximum yield per bush was striven at. With machine harvesting it is
important that most of the branches grow sideward, because the machine is
not efficient in picking berries from branches that grow along the row
(Liskola et al. VI-VII; Matala 180-181). In dense rows, the bushes are
forced to stretch sideways because of the competition between the
neighbouring bushes. Thus, fewer branches are formed towards the
neighbouring bushes, and most branches grow towards the spaces between
the rows. This is why dense rows are used in a currant cultivation system
based on machine picking. Maximum yield per bush is not striven at; the
goal is maximum yield per hectare.
Currant bushes need to be tended throughout their lifespan: they need
to be planted, pruned, fertilized, sprayed, irrigated, and the berries
need to be picked, packed and transported. Today, currant bushes are
mostly tended mechanically. Currant cultivations are usually planted with
the help of simple planting machines that are pulled by a tractor (Matala
125). Planting is usually done late in the autumn with 1-year-old to two-
year-old plants that are mostly ordered from nurseries, but sometimes
grown on the farm from cuttings (Matala 152-162, 180). The spaces between
rows grow grass; the space underneath the bushes is kept clean with help
of herbicides, or, in organic farming, with help of ground covers. The
grass between the rows is cut with a specific machine, and herbicides are
sprayed under the bushes using small field sprayers with specially
constructed nozzle units (Matala 121-124, 128-130; Suomaa). Fertilizing is
done mechanically (Matala 113), or through fertigation, where dissolved
fertilizer is spread via drip irrigation (Suomaa). Spraying is done with a
mistblower sprayer or a field sprayer attached to a tractor or to the
harvester, and pruning is partially done mechanically (Matala 183-200).
Pruning enhances the growth of currant bushes, which is important in
ensuring sustained production. Pruning enhances light exposure to the
inner parts of the bushes, and thus the quality of the berries (Matala
210-211). It also enhances the quality of the harvest. When the bushes
are regularly pruned, old and dry branches are removed. Hence, dry sticks
will not end up among the berries during harvest (Suomaa). Yearly
hand-pruning of currant bushes would be important even today, but it is
not cost-effective in modern commercial cultivations. However, it is still
advisable to hand-prune the bushes occasionally, if not on a yearly basis,
because machine pruning is never as accurate and selective as hand pruning
(Matala 210).
Plant observation is very important throughout the growing season, in
order to be able to time and direct plant protection measures
appropriately (Matala 228-231), as well as to time and size the harvest
correctly. Chemical plant protection methods, such as spraying with
fungicides and pesticides, are reduced to the necessary minimum in
currant production in Finland because of cost-effectiveness, but also
because of environmental issues: the less chemicals are used the better
(Suomaa). Each spraying must be closely timed, specifically targeted, and
clearly motivated by findings on the field. There are threshold values
for efficient pesticide use: pesticide use is cost-effective only if the
numbers of a given pest are found to be above the threshold value (Matala
229-232). In recent years there have been on average one to three
sprayings per summer with fungicides and one to two sprayings per summer
with pesticides on a Finnish currant farm with modern cultivation
techniques. In addition, there are specific fertilizer sprayings to
enhance disease resistance of white currants (Suomaa).
The Finnish currant cultivation technique is comparable with the
techniques used in other countries. It is also possible to get as good
yields of currants in Finland as in the other countries on average
(Matala 5). On the other hand, production expenses are high in Finland
compared to some other countries, most importantly Poland (Matala 6;
Salo). In addition, the harsh Finnish climate brings with it certain
risks, such as spring frosts and the risk of winter injuries (Matala 39-
41, 209, 60-61), that add to the uncertainty of currant production in
Finland. There are spring frosts in, for example Poland as well (Salo),
but in recent years their effect on yield has not been as great in Poland
as in Finland (Faostat). In recent years, the average yield of currants
has been significantly lower in Finland than in the major currant
producing countries in Europe (Faostat; Tike 52-53). In addition to spring
frosts, the reluctance to renew currant cultivations as a consequence to
the uncertainty in the markets has had a negative effect on currant yield
in Finland (Vilander, Haapamäentalossa; Vilander, Herukkaa).
How the berries are used: beverages and refined delicacies
Currants and other berries have traditionally been preserved in Finnish
households as juice and jelly. Cooking whole berries with a touch of
water and an adequate amount of sugar, and jellying the mixture with a
proper jellying agent has been the traditional method of making jelly in
Finnish households, and the method is still valid (Hillot). For decades,
juice has been prepared with the help of a specifically constructed steam
kettle called Mehu-Maija. The kettle consists of three pieces: the lowest
piece is filled with water, the topmost piece with a sieve bottom is
filled with berries and closed tightly, and the piece in the middle
collects the juice. As the water boils, hot steam evaporates, which
makes the berries soften and release their juice (Mehut). In the 1970s,
freezers became increasingly common in the Finnish households (Kodin).
The enhanced cooling equipment had a positive effect on the use of fresh
berries and on preserving berries in the Finnish households. Freezing
berries for later use became popular (Achrén 130; Kodin). Frozen berries
can be used as raw material for juice or jelly, as well as for desserts
and other delicacies.
For centuries it has been generally known that there are healthy
benefits of consuming berries. In the 17th century, the leaves
of black currant bushes were used to prepare medicine for fever, black
currant branches and roots were cooked and the liquid was used as a
medicine for rheumatism, and juice from the berries was used to cure a
sore throat (Lokonen and Köppä 29). Today black currant juice is still
very popular, and it is known to be rich in vitamin C. Hot black currant
juice is still consumed as a cure for a sore throat and to ease the
symptoms of flu or a common cold (Matala 5; Lokonen and Köppä 29). The
black currant's delicate flavour suits well in desserts as well, for
example in parfaits, sorbets or ice cream, or in traditional Finnish
desserts (Mustaherukkahyytelö). Black currant jam is traditionally used
with chicken meals in Finland, but it also suits well on toast or in
porridge (Meritalo). The berry industry uses black currants in alcoholic
beverages, and as a raw material for juice or jam (Vilander,
Marjoista; Meritalo; Pernod).
Red currants contain a lot of pectin, which makes it an excellent raw
material for jellies and jams. Red currant juice is also very refreshing,
and suits well in mixtures with other berry juices (Lokonen and Köppä
43). The berry industry uses red currants mainly as a raw material for
juice and alcoholic beverages (Vilander, Marjoista).
White currants are used in industry as a raw material for Finnish
sparkling wine, and for juice mixtures (Lokonen and Köppä 43). The white
currant is less widely known than the black and red currant, and has
traditionally been seen as an industrial berry (Matala 93). However,
white currants make excellent juice when blended with, for example, a
small amount of raspberry juice. White currant jelly is a beautiful,
rose-coloured product with a refined taste (Suomaa).
Gooseberries are mostly consumed fresh, or cooked into jellies or jams
in households. Some also make juice out of gooseberries, or use them in
pies. Finnish country wineries4 use
gooseberries in their products, such as wines and sparkling wines
(Tuotevalikoima).
The green currant is originally a Finnish speciality. The first green
currant cultivar, developed from the self-pollinated progeny of a black
currant cultivar, was released by MTT Agrifood Research Finland in 1987
(Matala 15). This cultivar, 'Vertti', never became very popular because
of problems in its cultivation (Tahvonen et al.). The green currant
berries, however, are an interesting product, with a softer but nicely
original taste compared to black currants. Thus, green currants have also
become popular as raw material in Finnish country wineries4 (Tahvonen et al.; Tuotevalikoima; Viinit). To
encourage green currant production, two new green currant cultivars with
enhanced characteristics were released in 2007 by MTT Agrifood Research
Finland (Tahvonen et al.).
Berries of all currant species can be used as raw material for
alcoholic beverages. In 2007 there were 38 small-scale country
wineries4 in Finland producing berry wines
and other alcoholic beverages, such as sparkling wines, liqueurs and berry
ciders (Vilander, Marjoista). Currants are very important as a raw
material in these products (Tuotevalikoima; Viinit; Väkevät).
How does the Finnish currant production stand in the competitive
international market?
Currants are a very European crop
Today, currants are a very European crop compared to other fruit and
berry crops. There are, however, wild currant species in North America as
well, such as the American black currant, Ribes americanum Mill.,
and the Canadian black currant, Ribes hudsonianum Richards., as
well as wild gooseberry species (Hämet-Ahti et al., Suomen 274-276;
Murphy 44) . In addition, European immigrants brought currants with them,
probably as seeds, into North America already in the 17th
century, and it is known that currant cuttings were ordered from Europe to
North America in the 17th century (Matala 14; Meurman 214). In
1925 as many as 61 North American black currant cultivars were listed, of
which 40 were Canadian. In the same year, altogether 185 red and white
currant cultivars were listed in an American book, of which as many as 109
were North American (Meurman 214).
However, today commercial cultivation of currants is marginal in the
United States. The reason is a disease that spread from Europe to the US
in pine plants in the late 19th century. This disease is caused
by a species of rust fungi, Cronartium ribicola, and it is called
'white pine blister rust'. The fungus has two obligate hosts, one of which
is white pines, and the other currants. This means that the disease can
spread through currants. All of the North American white pines (also
called five- needle pines), such as Pinus strobus, are very
susceptible to this disease, and have a high mortality rate when infected.
The disease caused a forest disaster in the US in the early
20th century. Because of this, black currant production was
restricted or banned in the US. Even today there are several states where
currants may not be grown freely (Matala 14; White).
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's
statistics, the area of currants harvested in 2007 in the whole world was
140,315 hectares, of which there were 0 hectares in the United States,
160 hectares in Australia, and 1,275 hectares in New Zealand, with the
remaining 138,880 hectares in Europe and its neighbouring areas in Asia.
The figure for currant production in Canada was unfortunately not given
(Faostat).
The largest currant producers are the Russian Federation and Poland,
with 67,800 hectares and 45,816 hectares harvested in 2007, respectively
(Faostat). Of the two, Poland is very strong in exporting currants as raw
material, whereas most of the currants produced in the Russian Federation
are consumed domestically (Matala 56; Salo).
Fluctuations in the world markets
The black currant is by far the most significant currant species on the
world market. The demand for red currants is low, and there is very little
commercial production of white currants and gooseberries (Matala 55). On
the whole, currants are distinctively industrial berries, rather than
delicacies (Matala 5, 55, 75). They are very easily stored frozen, and so
the production of the previous year, and the amount of stored berries,
affect the annual prices in world markets very strongly (Salo).
There has been a cyclic pattern in currant production in the world in
the past two decades. The demand for black currants increased strongly
between the years 1989 - 1990, mainly because currant production in
Poland was at that time in turmoil, due to the drastic changes in
politics in the country (Matala 55; Salo). The price was relatively high
in the world markets. Because of this, new currant fields were planted in
many countries. There is, however, a certain instability and uncertainty
in the world currant market, mainly due to the characteristics of the
product: currants are a bulk product that is easily stored frozen. For
example in 1992 the production increased more than the demand, and the
price of currants plunged (Matala 55).
A few years of slow growth in the area harvested followed, until the
same development occurred again during the years 2000 - 2005. The area of
currants harvested then increased in a few years from 104,173 hectares in
1994 to a peak of 158,647 hectares in 2002 (Faostat). This can be
explained by the high prices in the world markets in the late 1990s. The
record price in 10 years was €1 per kilogram in the year 2000. New
currant fields were planted in many countries, especially in the eastern
parts of Europe. However, when the new cultivations reached maturity in
2002 - 2003, the price of currants plunged again. In 2003 currants sold
on world markets at prices well below production expenses: €0.18 - 0.40
per kilogram. The difficult situation in the world markets continued
during the years 2004 - 2005 because there was an abundance of stored
currants worldwide (Salo). This has affected the area harvested, which
has decreased slowly in recent years (Faostat). However, there is still
pressure to reduce currant production worldwide (Salo).
The currant market in Finland
The situation on the world markets affects the Finnish currant growers
strongly, as the price of Finnish industrial berries reflects the price in
the world markets, and the price of industrial berries affects the price
of currants in the fresh market in Finland (Matala 93). In 1999 around
50% of all currants produced in Finland were industrial berries, and only
50% of the production was sold in the fresh market (Matala 93). The
situation has, however, changed in recent years as the demand for Finnish
industrial berries has decreased, and an ever-increasing portion of
currants in Finland is being sold to the fresh market (Vilander,
Herukkaa). Some of the largest and oldest Finnish berry industry
companies no longer exist, or no longer use Finnish berries in their
production, which has affected the demand for currants.
Of the Finnish berry industry pioneers: Huhtamäki Oy2, Orion Oy Chymos and Saarioinen Oy (Matala 5),
only Saarioinen Oy remains, and it still has currant cultivation contracts
with Finnish growers. Huhtamäki Oy Marli has been divided into two
separate companies, of which Oy Marli Ab makes juices, but has substituted
imported berries for Finnish currants in its products (Vilander,
Marjoista). The other half of the original company was sold to the
Swedish Vin & Sprit company, which was in turn sold to the Pernod Ricard
company in 2008 (V&S Group). This company, Pernod Ricard Finland, still
produces alcoholic beverages in Marli's old factory in Turku, and uses
Finnish currants in its products, for example in Elysée sparkling wine
(Pernod).
There are also other companies that buy smaller amounts of Finnish
currants, such as Pakkasmarja Oy, Vesannon Marja Oy, Nordic Jam Oy,
Kiantama Oy, MaHeVi Oy, Marjavasu Oy, Meritalo Oy, and others (Vilander,
Marjoista; Vilander, Marjat). The Finnish country wineries
use Finnish currants as well (Vilander, Marjoista; Tuotevalikoima;
Viinit; Väkevät; Moisio).
The demand for currants on the Finnish fresh market is estimated to
increase in the future. However, the importance of marketing and of a
high quality of the berries will also increase. In addition, it has been
said that the yield of the wild forest berries, such as blueberries and
lingonberries, affects the demand for currants on the fresh market. The
question is how to stabilize the demand for currants and to diminish the
fluctuations in the market. The majority of the Finnish currants that are
sold on the fresh market are machine picked. The consumers have
traditionally preserved most of the currants that they purchase from the
fresh market (Vilander, Herukkaa).
Compared to earlier decades when a few companies were very actively
promoting currant production and making currant cultivation contracts
(Matala 5; Ackren 51-52; Liskola et al. V-IX), the growers of today need
to tolerate a greater level of uncertainty, they need to be more active
and have several products, as well as several marketing channels, to
secure their income. Some growers have expanded their production with,
for example, strawberries and raspberries. To assure the sales of their
products, many growers have developed their marketing through several
buyers and/or direct sale from the farm. Others have upgraded their
products and/or specialized in organic production and thus enhanced
direct sale from their farm (Vilander, Haapamäentalossa; Vilander,
Marjat; Vilander, Luomumarjat).
New views on the marketing of currants: information on the
healthy substances of the berries
There are numerous "old wives' tales" concerning the healthy effects of
berries in Finland. Hot black currant juice has been used to relieve the
symptoms of the flu or a common cold for centuries. Wild blueberries are
said to have a positive effect on eyesight; and cranberry juice is
said to prevent urinary tract infection.5
The effect of black currant juice was at least partially explained
already before the Second World War when the high vitamin C content of
black currants was discovered (Meurman 212). Today, this is considered
common knowledge in Finland, but the actual details of the vitamin content
of currants are less widely known, as well as all of their other healthy
substances.
In recent years, research on healthy substances of berries has produced
scientific data that has proven the above-mentioned old wives' tales to
have been correct. Actually, not only blueberries but also black currants
may have a positive effect on eyesight in humans, and not only cranberries
but also lingonberries have a preventive effect on urinary tract infection
(Haapalahti 21). In addition, several other healthy effects of berries
have been newly discovered.
The vitamin content of currants may thus be old news, but it has not
lost its significance in the human diet. The amount of vitamin C in black
currants depends on the cultivar, but it is on average 120 - 180 mg in
100 grams of fresh berries (Matala 47- 48; Black). In comparison, the
vitamin C content of oranges is around 50 mg in 100 grams of fresh fruit
(Matala 47). It is said that 50 grams of fresh or frozen black currants
equals the required daily intake of vitamin C in humans (Mustaherukka).
In addition, black currant berries contain a relatively high amount of
vitamin E, as well as carotenoids, the pre-stage of vitamin A (Black;
Haapalahti 10-11; Mustaherukka). Gooseberries and red currants contain a
relatively high amount of vitamin C as well, ranging between 30 - 38 mg
in 100 grams of fresh berries. The amount of vitamin C in white currants
is said to be somewhat higher than this (Matala 47).
In recent years there has been much research on phenolic compounds of
berries and their antioxidant activity in humans (Haapalahti 3, 15-16;
Hakala; Mustaherukka). It has been shown that the black currant is one of
the berries that contain a high level of beneficial phenolic compounds
(Haapalahti 3, 15-16; Hakala; Mustaherukka). In addition, black currants
have been shown to have an ideal fatty acid composition in their seed oil
(Vuorinen; Mustaherukkaöljy). Black currant seed oil has been shown to
have a beneficial effect on the health of the heart and the blood vessels
(Mustaherukkaöljy). In addition, black currant seed oil has been shown to
have a lowering effect on LDL cholesterol (Haapalahti 21;
Mustaherukkaöljy). All this new information, combined with the existing
knowledge on the black currant's qualities, resulted in the black currant
being selected as the 2007 Medicinal Plant of the Year by Suomen
Terveystuotekauppiaiden Liitto ry [the Finnish association for health
product merchants] (Mustaherukka vuoden).
A glimpse of the future
Currants may not provide a secure income to all present Finnish currant
growers in the future, but the most persistent growers will probably
continue. In 2007, as many as 67% of currant growers who responded to a
questionnaire of the Hedelmän- ja Marjanviljelijäin Liitto ry [the
Finnish association for fruit and berry growers] replied that they were
not going to renew their cultivations, nor pull down old bushes, but were
going to continue as it is (Vilander, Herukkaa). The reluctance to
renew currant cultivations is a consequence of the uncertainty in the
markets (Vilander, Haapamäentalossa). However, as the importance of
the fresh market increases, the importance of the visual quality of the
berries increases as well. Currants ought to be large in size and of high
quality in order to attract the consumers. This is not easily achieved
with berries from old bushes (Vilander, Herukkaa).
As an ever-increasing portion of currants produced in Finland ends up
in the fresh market, the importance of marketing will increase in the
future (Vilander, Herukkaa). Options to enhance the marketing of
currants might be to differentiate the product, with help of, for example,
organic production. It is said that the so-called 'conventional
production' in Finland is also 'softer' - that is, less intensive in the
use of chemicals - than in Central Europe, partly because of Finland's
pristine conditions and northerly location (Matala 6). There are, however,
some currant growers who seek advantage in marketing by specialising in
organic production (Matala 6). There are reports of positive experiences
of organic currant production, and especially its effects on marketing the
product (Vilander, Herukkaa; Vilander, Luomumarjat).
Black currants are by far the most important currant species in
organic production. In 2008 there were 284 hectares of organic currant
production in Finland, which comprised 13% of the total area of currants
harvested in that year (Tike 51). The area of currants under organic
production has, however, diminished; in 2005 there were 383 hectares of
organically grown currants (Vilander, Herukkaa). The reason for
this is not clear, but it may have something to do with the price for
organic currants on the market, which may not have been as high as
expected (Salo).
Yet another option for currant growers in the future might be to
upgrade their products, or to cooperate more with small companies that
already produce various berry products. There are several berry farms in
Finland that produce juice or jam from their own berries, or freeze
berries in consumer packages to be sold in the wintertime (Hedelmän-;
Vilander, Luomumarjat; Vilander, Haapamäentalossa). This
kind of activity may increase in the future.
Today, Finnish country wineries are only allowed to sell bottled
products with less than 13% of alcohol from their shops. However, many of
the wineries also produce liqueurs. As for now, the wineries are only
allowed to sell liqueurs by the glass in their own restaurants, or in
bottles through Alko, the government monopoly chain for strong alcoholic
beverages in Finland. Soon it will be possible to sell liqueurs in bottles
on location as well, if the changes planned to the Finnish law on
alcoholic beverages passes through (Moisio; Kähkönen). This is estimated
to have a very positive effect on the sales of the country wineries and on
their need for raw material (Moisio). The Finnish country wineries are
only allowed to use domestic raw materials in their products. This means
that an increase in their production will have a direct, if not very
significant, influence on the demand for Finnish berries. It is estimated
that in 2007 Finnish country wineries used around 100,000 kilograms of
Finnish fruits and berries in their products (Vilander, Marjoista).
It has been said that an ever-increasing number of Finns will be
living in big cities in the future (Anhava), where storage room is limited
and thus the possibilities to preserve and to store currant products for
later consumption are not very good. Furthermore, Finnish families are
smaller today compared to the situation a few decades ago (Perheväestö).
There is not as much need to preserve berry products for a household of
only a few people as for a big family. Nevertheless, Finns are also
wealthier now than a few decades ago (Palkansaajien), which tends to
influence the overall consumption positively. It may well be that all this
will lead to an increased demand for upgraded currant products on the markets.
The demand for fresh berries may well shift from berries for
preservation to berries that are to be consumed fresh. It is, in fact,
estimated that the demand for hand-picked, high quality currants will
increase and that an increasing amount of the purchased berries will be
frozen as such or eaten fresh. Consumers are said to purchase such
products with their eyes. It remains to be seen if the price for
hand-picked, high quality currants will be high enough to motivate the
growers to invest in hand-picking (Vilander, Herukkaa).
A positive outlook for Finnish currant production?
There are long traditions of using currant products in Finnish households.
Finnish currant growers can only hope that consumers will value
short-haul products and domestic berry products in the future as well,
as this will be essential to the future of domestic currant products,
regardless of the size of the company that has produced them.
The value of the healthy substances found in currants has not yet been
exploited to its full extent in the marketing of currants in Finland. It
remains to be seen how well Finnish currant growers and the companies
selling Finnish berry products will succeed in their future marketing. In
recent years they have gained new information on the value of currants -
the black currant in particular. The job remains to make use of all this
information, and to convince customers to buy more and more of the
products. This may require the development of new, upgraded products from
the valuable raw material to attract new customers.
The positive fact remains that as biological species, currants are well
adapted to the Finnish climate. In addition, there are long traditions of
currant production in Finland, and the Finnish currant cultivation
technique is comparable with the techniques used in other countries.
Given a suitable habitat and a skilled grower, it is quite possible to
reach good currant yields in Finland. This, as well as the high quality
of berries, can only be achieved when the bushes are actively tended and
appropriately renewed. As in any line of work, the investment must,
however, be duly rewarded. The production of currants must be
economically viable. It remains to be seen how successfully the equation
will be solved in Finland, and how well currant production and
consumption will be balanced in Finland in the future.
- Before the Second World War, Viipuri belonged to Finland. Viipuri
was the second largest city of Finland in 1939, and the principal town of
Viipuri province. After 1944 Viipuri belonged to the Soviet Union, and is
now a part of the Russian Federation.
- 'Oy' is the official Finnish abbreviation for a 'public limited
company', or 'osakeyhtiö' in Finnish.
- A hectare is the unit of area used in agricultural contexts in
most European countries. One hectare is equal to 10,000 square metres,
and equals 2.47 acres.
- Finnish country wineries prepare alcoholic beverages from Finnish
berries and fruits. Currently there are 38 wineries in different parts of
Finland. The Finnish alcohol production laws changed in 1995, which made
it possible for the country wineries to sell bottled products with less
than 13% alcohol from their shops.
- More information on the healthy effects of berries can be found in
the book Mihin marjamme kelpaavat, by Toivo Rautavaara and Pekka
Knuutila (Porvoo [Finland]: WSOY Publishers, 1981).
Works Cited
- Achrén, Reino. Puoli vuosisataa hedelmä- ja marja-asialla.
Hedelmän- ja marjanviljelijäin liiton 50-vuotishistoria. Helsinki:
Yliopistopaino, 1996.
- Alanko, Pentti ja Pirkko Kahila. Ukonhattu ja ahkeraliisa -
perinteiset hyötykasvit. Keuruu: Kustannusosakeyhtiö Tammi, 1994.
- Anhava, Maunu. Nuoret muuttavat pois näivettyvältä
maaseudulta. Hämeen
Sanomat 16 January 2010: 7.
- Black
Currant. Fineli. National Institute for Health and Welfare
website. Viewed 4 December 2009.
- Elonen, Paavo. Maan muokkauksen tavoitteet. Maan
muokkaus. Tieto Tuottamaan 39. Maatalouskeskusten Liitto, 1986. 5 -
15.
- Faostat.
Production, Crops. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations website. Viewed 2 December 2009.
- Haapalahti, Mila.
Terveyttä luonnonantimista - marjojen terveysvaikutuksia.
Luomumarjat website [PPT]. Viewed 4 December 2009.
- Hakala, Paula.
Marjoista on moneksi. Kela - The Social Insurance
Institution of Finland website. Viewed 4 December 2009.
-
Hedelmän- ja marjanviljelijäin liiton suoramyynti- ja itsepoimintatilat
kesällä 2009. Hedelmän- ja marjanviljelijäin liitto
website. Viewed 4 December 2009.
-
Hillot. Marttaliitto website. Viewed 16 January 2010.
- Hämet-Ahti, Leena, Annikki Palmén, Pentti Alanko and Peter M. A.
Tigerstedt. Suomen puu- ja pensaskasvio. Helsinki: Dendrologian
Seura - Dendrologiska Sällskapet r.y., 1992.
- Hämet-Ahti, Leena, Juha Suominen, Tauno Ulvinen and Pertti Uotila,
eds. Retkeilykasvio. Helsinki: Luonnontieteellisen keskusmuseon
kasvimuseo, 1998.
-
Kartat: Suomen kartta - topografinen (kaikki vesistöt).
Maanmittauslaitos website. Viewed 31 November 2009.
-
Kartta 1 - Hallintoalueet. Maanmittauslaitos website.
Viewed 17 January 2010.
-
Keittiön koneellistuminen 1900-luvulla. Finfood - Suomen
Ruokatieto ry website. Viewed 16 January 2010.
- Kevät.
Ilmatieteen laitos website. Viewed 31 November 2009.
- Kähkönen, Heikki.
Tilaviiniyritykset saavat mietojen liköörien myyntioikeuden.
Viisi Tähteä 11 October 2009.
- Leskinen, Aapo. Käytännön marjanviljely. Puutarhaliiton
opaskirjoja n:o 24. Helsinki: Puutarhaliitto - Trädgårdsförbundet ry,
1977.
- Liskola, Kari, Risto Tahvonen and Toivo Hytönen. Herukan konekorjuu
- HERKO. Sarja B n:ro 56. Helsinki: Suomen Itsenäisyyden Juhlavuoden
1967 Rahasto, 1980.
- Lokonen, Pentti and Pekka Köppä. Puutarhamarjojen viljely.
Puutarhaliiton opaskirjoja n:o 16. Helsinki: Puutarhaliitto ry, 1968.
- Matala, Ville. Herukan viljely. Puutarhaliiton julkaisuja nro
269. Helsinki: Puutarhaliitto ry, 1999.
-
Mehut. Marttaliitto website. Viewed 16 January 2010.
- Meritalo.
Marjajaloste Meritalo Oy website. Viewed 2 December 2009.
- Meurman Olavi. Suomen hedelmäpuut ja viljellyt marjat.Toinen osa:
päärynät, luumut, kirsikat ja marjat. Helsinki: Oy Suomen Kirja, 1947.
- Moisio, Simo.
Tilaliköörejä voi jatkossa ostaa suoraan viinitiloilta.
Luonnosta Sinulle -nettilehti 2/2009. Arktiset Aromit ry. Viewed 1
December 2009.
- Murphy, Stephen D.
Smurphbot: List of Vascular Flora of Northeastern Canada/U.S.
. Website of B.Sc. (Hons.) Ph.D. Stephen D. Murphy. Viewed
13 December 2009.
-
Mustaherukka. Pakkasmarja Oy website. Viewed 4 December
2009.
-
Mustaherukka vuoden 2007 rohdoskasvi. Lehdistötiedote 1/2007.
Suomen Terveystuotekauppiaiden Liitto ry website. Viewed 4 December
2009.
-
Mustaherukkahyytelö. Kotikokki.net website. Viewed 2
December 2009.
- Mustaherukkaöljy alentaa kolesterolia. Maaseudun
Tulevaisuus 10 February 2006.
-
Palkansaajien ansiot nousivat heinä-syyskuussa 4,3
prosenttia. Tilastokeskus website. Viewed 17 January 2010.
-
Perheväestö ja perheen keskikoko 1950 - 2008. Tilastokeskus
website. Viewed 17 January 2010.
- Pernod Ricard
Finland. Pernod Ricard Finland website. Viewed 3 December
2009.
- Sadetilastoja ja
ennätyksiä. Ilmatieteen laitos website. Viewed 31
November 2009.
- Salo, Hannu. Executive manager of Hedelmän- ja Marjanviljelijäin
Liitto ry. Re: tietoja. E-mail note sent on 14 December 2009 at
09:13 PST.
- Simonen, Seppo. Suomen puutarhatalouden historia. Helsinki:
Puutarhaliitto ry, 1961.
- Suomaa, Jussi. Personal interview. 2 December 2009.
- Tahvonen, Risto, Jorma Hellsten and Tuija Rosvall. Herukoiden uudet
jalosteet pian markkinoille. Puutarha&kauppa nro 9/2007 ss 24-
25.
- Tike, Maa- ja metsätalousministeriön tietopalvelukeskus.
Puutarhayritysrekisteri 2008. Helsinki: Tike, 2009.
-
Tuotevalikoima. Rönnvikin Viinitila website. Viewed 1 December
2009.
-
Viinit. Viini- ja Puutarhatila Pihamaa website. Viewed 1
December 2009.
- Vilander, AnnaMaija. Haapamäentalossa herukka on vahvoilla.
Puutarha&kauppa issue 21/2008: 12-13.
- - - - . Herukkaa yhä vahvemmin tuoremarjamarkkinoille.
Puutarha&kauppa issue 1/2007: 16.
- - - - . Luomumarjat maistuvat jatkojalosteina.
Puutarha&kauppa issue 23/2008 : 34-35.
- - - - . Marjahinnat kohdallaan kesällä 2007.
Puutarha&kauppa issue 9/2008: 10-11.
- - - - . Marjat markkinoille välittäjien kautta.
Puutarha&kauppa issue 17/2006: 17.
- - - - . Marjoista makuja monia. Puutarha&kauppa issue
17/2008: 6.
- V&S Group. The website
of V&S Group. Viewed 3 December 2009.
- Vuorinen, Helena. Marjojen
siemenöljyistä. Pakkasmarja Oy website Viewed 4 December
2009.
- Väkevät viinit ja
liköörit. Alahovin Viinitila website Viewed 1 December 2009.
-
White Pine Blister Rust. High Elevation White Pines/US Forest
Service Rocky Mountain Research Station Website. Viewed 13 December
2009.
