The basic citation for TV and radio programs is to the program itself, as it had been broadcast at a particular time by a particular station. In cases where the program has been recorded for research purposes, the citation is still to the broadcast data. However, if the TV program has been viewed as part of a DVD collection [e.g. Friends, Season Two], then it should be cited according to the DVD's publication details (see Citing Films and DVDs).

For a "basic citation," where your paper has only referred to a program generally, one does not need to mention the director, producer or performers. However, these would be required for a more detailed citation (see below).

The program's exact source is important. TV programs are often edited differently for domestic and international distribution, and still differently for viewing in airplanes, etc. The British series Clocking Off, for example, had certain language removed when it was broadcast on the international BBC Prime channel that had been present during its domestic BBC TV broadcasts in England and also when it was broadcast on TV 1 in Finland. Conversely, extra material is sometimes added to programs in DVD collections that was not part of the television broadcasts. In short, there can be significant differences in the "same" program depending on when, where and by whom the program was broadcast. Thus one must always cite to exactly when, where and how the program was experienced.

The Basic Order of Information

For basic TV and radio citations, the order of information is the:

1. Title of the episode or segment (if available and relevant)
2. Title of the program
3. Title of the series (if it is a series of programs with separate episodes)
4. [Names of the actor(s), director, screenwriter, etc., where relevant]
5. Name of the broadcast or cable TV or radio network, and city of operation where relevant
6. The date the program was broadcast, and where relevant the time of broadcast, etc.

Many TV and radio programs are not "episodes" in a "series" but are complete works in their own right. In such cases not all of the detail above would be required. Thus, for a basic citation to a single program broadcast (in this example, a documentary on Sophia Loren) on a particular channel on a particular date, the citation would be as follows (assuming that the paper has established that the program was viewed in Finland, and that YLE Teema is part of YLE [the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation], which is based in Helsinki):

• Looking for Sophia. YLE Teema. 15 March 2005.

In the above case, the time the program was broadcast (20:00) need not be mentioned, since the program was only broadcast once that day, and there was no similar program with which the title could be confused. If the program had been broadcast more than once on 15 March (for example in the afternoon and then again in the evening) the time should be mentioned, as it is possible that the two broadcasts could have been slightly different.

If the program was an episode in a series, then the episode title should be given. Thus, for an episode of the Lovejoy series broadcast on TV-1 in Finland on 22 October 2003, the following would be required (assuming again that the paper has established that the program was viewed in Finland, and that TV 1 is part of YLE, which is based in Helsinki, etc.):

• To Sleep No More. Lovejoy. TV-1. 22 October 2003.

More Detailed Citation Options

Papers often require more detailed citations than the simple forms illustrated above, especially with programs like Lovejoy, which was adapted for television from the popular novels by author Jonathan Gash. Will your paper compare the language used in the television series against the original language of Gash's books? In this case your citation may be to the screenwriter(s) of the series or episode(s) [as well as a separate citation to one or more of Gash's books]. Will it be to the direction of the TV series, the way the actors spoke the language, the way the scenery or music might influence the meaning of the language, etc.? There are many citation options.

The Lovejoy episode cited above, for example, had been episode 6 of season 1 of the program, first broadcast on 14 February 1986 (although this detail is not included in the short citation given above). The student viewed the episode in a re-run on YLE TV-1 on 22 October 2003, as part of an autumn 2003 series of re-runs titled "One More Time: Classic British Series" that was broadcast on weekday afternoons at 15:05. The series starred Ian McShane as "Lovejoy" ("perf." is short for "performed by" or "performing").

If your paper was comparing different TV programs in which Ian McShane had performed, or was studying the way in which McShane gave particular meaning to certain words by his gestures or facial expressions, or the way he pronounced particular words (to mention only two possible examples), then your citation at minimum would also need to include Ian McShane as a performer in the program (though it could also cite him directly, see below).

Likewise, if you were comparing different episodes of the Lovejoy series, then you would need to mention the episode numbers and the season(s) in which the episode(s) appeared. If you assume an international readership which may not know where "TV-1" is located or what "YLE" is (even if you may have mentioned this in your paper), then this detail should also be in the citation. An example of all the above is:

• To Sleep No More. Lovejoy. Season 1, Episode 6. Perf. Ian McShane. The Finnish Broadcasting Corporation. TV-1, Helsinki. 22 October 2003.

If you wished to make clear how much time had passed since this episode had originally been broadcast in England and the date you saw it as a re-run in Finland, then the additional detail would appear as follows:

• To Sleep No More. Lovejoy. Season 1, Episode 6. 14 February 1986. Perf. Ian McShane. One More Time: Classic British Series. The Finnish Broadcasting Corporation. TV-1, Helsinki. 22 October 2003.

When referring to more than one of the actors, if your paper has referred to them, one would simply add their names after the "Perf." (which can also be expanded to "Performing") or to the Director (Dir.), Screenwriter/Adaptor (Adapt.), etc. Thus the citation could also be:

• To Sleep No More. Lovejoy. Season 1, Episode 6. 14 February 1986. Performing: Ian McShane, Phyllis Logan, Dudley Sutton, and Chris Jury. Director: Baz Taylor. One More Time: Classic British Series. The Finnish Broadcasting Corporation. TV-1, Helsinki. 22 October 2003.

Thus, all of the citations above would be "correct" even if they vary considerably in the amount of detail. Which form you use would depend on what would be appropriate for your particular paper.

Directly Citing a Particular Person Connected With a TV Program

If your paper primarily concerns the particular contribution of a director, actor, screenwriter, etc., of a particular program — as may be the case with the Ian McShane examples above — then that person should be cited directly, with the program information following. For example:

• McShane, Ian, perf. To Sleep No More. Lovejoy. Season 1, Episode 6. The Finnish Broadcasting Corporation. TV-1, Helsinki. 22 October 2003.

This example is for an actor who is "performing" the part of a fictional character. See below for how to cite a "real person" in a TV program.

What If You Are Citing a 'Real Person' From a TV or Radio Program?

The Lovejoy examples above refer to a fictional character. What if you are citing what was said by a real person, for example on a talk show? In this case the citation would be to the real person, with the program cited as the means by which you had heard the person's speech. This procedure is similar to that for an interview, as illustrated below:

• Leskinen, Juice. Translator Talk! MTV3, Helsinki. 17 October 2003.

You could also quote a real person from a documentary program, for example the program on Sophia Loren cited at the top of this page. In is shortest form, the procedure would be exactly as above:

• Loren, Sophia. Looking for Sophia. YLE Teema. 15 March 2005.

However, generally the citation would be to the program itself, rather than to Sophia Loren (or another person) in the program. One would normally only cite Sophia Loren if there were a number of other citations by Sophia Loren to which you had referred, with the Looking for Sophia program being one of these.

With a citation to the program itself, one could also use the 'Citing B in A' procedure, quoting Sophia Loren's words in the documentary about her life, with an in-text citation of, for example, "(Loren in Looking)."

Citing a Radio Program

A radio program is cited similarly to a TV program, the main differences being that (a) there are fewer options for radio programs, as they are less "complicated" — being audio-only, rather than audiovisual — than TV programs; and that (b) most TV stations (in Finland) may be viewed nationwide, whereas there are some radio stations that can be heard only locally. In such a case, one must add the city where the radio station is located to identify the station and program in question. Notice that the program name, the radio name, the radio location, the date, and the broadcast time are all separate 'sentences' followed by periods.

• Alueuutiset. Radio Southwest. Pori. 14 October 2003. 12:30.

One may also refer to the speech of particular "real people" or the contributions of "directors" or "performers" in radio entertainment programs the same way as one would with TV programs, in which case the additional detail would be added in the fashion as for TV programs.

Citing a Transcript of a TV or Radio Program

One can often find full transcripts of popular TV series on the internet, or even in print publications. In some cases they may be obtained directly from the TV or radio station. If you are citing language from the transcript of a program, add the description Transcript to the end of the citation, as shown below. The transcript itself should specify which version/edition of the program it represents, and this detail should then be used for the "broadcast detail" in the regular citation.

• Alueuutiset. Radio Southwest. Pori. 14 October 2003. 12:30. Transcript.

In such cases, especially if you have also viewed or recorded the broadcast of a program, be certain that your examples are ONLY from the transcript, and are not mixed with examples from the broadcast itself. Bear in mind that the transcript, as with any human endeavor, may have factual errors and/or typos.

Likewise, if the "transcript" is in fact the "script" the performers were using to produce the program ("transcripts," [which are a record of what was said] and "scripts" [a plan for what should be said] are often confused), remember that performers often "ad lib" from the script or otherwise change what was written in the screenplay to something that is more natural or easier for them to say. Again, there may be differences between the written version you have, whether "script" or "transcript," and what was actually performed in the program.