What are "obscenities," and why should US-1 cover them?

"Obscenities" are frequently confusing for learners of English as a second language, and no less so the more proficient one becomes in English. They are rarely taught in school curricula, and the contexts in which they are used, and the "strength" they contain in their native context is difficult for anyone outside that context to accurately judge. As such, "obscenities," "expletives" and "forbidden language" is often problematic in all forms of translation.

Obscene language is not standard. Some obscenities are similar across the different varieties of World English, but more often they are specific to national or regional usage. What is considered obscene will vary over time. Further, terms which would not normally be considered 'obscene' may also be used in context for an obscene effect.

The term "obscenities" refers to 'profane' or 'vulgar' or 'forbidden' or 'naughty' language, or in general the practice of 'cursing' [cussing] or using 'curse words' [cusswords]. Related words include blasphemies, taboos, epithets, slurs, and scatologies [references to excremental and toilet functions, e.g. "shit"].

It may be obvious that euphemisms are also involved in "obscene" language. Some types of specific 'jargon' identities (cf. 'Mobspeak': The Language of the Mafia [McLucas] and the 'Mobspeak' Glossary) are also based largely on obscene or profane expression.

Why Study Cursing and Obscenities?

"Obscene language" has become much more common in both elite literature (cf. class examples of language of elite black literature) and the mass media (cf. the language of current black rap artists) in recent years. This presents a variety of problematics for translators and interpreters. With these, it is essential to know some of the various implications of 'profanities', as well as how they differ between variants of English such as SAE and SBE.

As examples of recent historic change, consider these examples of "obscenities" from Ernest Hemingway's The Short, Happy Life of Francis Macomber, William Styron's Sophie's Choice, and Charles Bukowski's Pulp.

Consider also the differences in the use of obscenities in TV programs such as The Sopranos, Sex and the City, Deadwood and Six Feet Under. What different meaning(s) might obscenities have in each? (These are all HBO productions, available in the U.S. only via subscription-based cable "narrowcasting.")

In more "public" contexts, there may be different considerations for 'forbidden' words, depending on why, in particular circumstances, certain terms 'should not be used' or may be perfectly acceptable. Compare, for example:

• Words banned from television and George Carlin's 7 Dirty Words; plus "X-rated Words" in airline movies and the AOL Vulgarity Guide, to

• Scholarly discussion of the "f-word"; vs. class problematics with obscenities at The College of William and Mary, and the

• November 2004 ABC controversy over the use of "fucking" in the broadcast of Saving Private Ryan, or the use of "fucking brilliant" by Bono in the 2003 Golden Globe Awards ceremonies (see Bono's New Casualty: Private Ryan for some social and legal implications).

'Cursing' may be a reflection of rebellion or an indicator of social powerlessness. Poor people seem to curse more than affluent people. Teenagers usually curse more than adults. But why? Timothy Jay suggests that it is because they have so little to lose by cursing. The situation of teenagers is similar to that of the poor or the politically disenfranchised; they have no power, so they have nothing to lose by cursing (Jay 163). Would this also apply to rappers?

However, the use of vulgar or obscene language may be inadvertent, if for instance acquired without contextual definition from the media or otherwise:

• Anecdote of children using language 'learned' from television;
• Anecdote of Swedish student taking her baby to the doctor in the U.S.
• Would these examples be of "vulgar" or "obscene" language, or neither? Is "capacity to understand and choose between" alternate forms of expression relevant for either young children or (non-professional) speakers of English as a foreign language?

Historical Influence from British English on 'Forbidden Language' in American English

Terms in one language variety may have originated in another, but then be locally modified over time. Consider these "forbidden" words from the British Victorian and early American Puritan heritages. Note the use of euphemism and restriction of some usage to a particular historical period.

• (Underclothing) brassiere, panties, garters, corset, etc., euphemized to foundation garments, lingerie, undies, underwear, i.e. "non-explicit" or "indirect" references

• (Toilet locations) retiring room, restroom, washroom, comfort station, john, loo, powder room, cloak room, lavatory, For Ladies Only, Gentlemen, [cf. BE:"to spend a penny...."]

• (Words 'suggesting' body parts) cock/rooster, cockroach/roach, breasts/bosom, ass/donkey [cf. BE 'arse'], pregnant/delicate condition, interesting condition, with child, "enceinte," to go to bed, to retire — or avoidance altogether, as in 1950s Rock Hudson & Doris Day 'romance films'

• (Venereal disease) syphilis, gonorrhea, cf. 'social' or 'vice' diseases, "specific ulcer"

• (To rape) previously euphemized as "to assault," i.e. "a fiend had knocked the girl down, dragged her down the cellar steps, beat her with an iron pipe, and [then!] assaulted her..."

• ('Rural' euphemisms for obscenities) "Damn" = darn, dern, durn, danged, gol-danged, all-fired, blamed, blasted, blowed, confounded, dashed, cursed, cussed, etc.

Historic Ethnic Slurs in American English Deriving from U.S. Immigration History

Some examples of ethnic slurs formerly used in American English (no longer considered 'acceptable language', but sometimes still found in ethnic 'humor', historical contexts or as insults).

• Jewish = kike, yid, sheeney, mockie, Jew-boy, 'Jew' (cf. 'a Jewish person')
• Italian = wop, dago, tony (connection to "Tony" Soprano?)
• Black = nigger, coon, Rastus/Liza, pickaninny, jigaboo, jungle bunny, spade, tarball
• German = kraut, hun, heinie
• Mexican = greaser, wetback, spic (spik) ("no spik Inglis...")

Examples of British Profanities Which Are Ineffective in American English

• Bugger, bugger off, etc. — see legal definition — hence "ladybird", not "ladybug"
• "Bloody" and sod [sodomite] — cf. "Bugger off, you bloody sod" from John Boorman's film Hope and Glory
• Cock ("...we may congratulate ourselves on not having lived in that century when an infant of six could be hanged....and schoolboys were encouraged to match cocks."