Overview of U.S. mass media: Highly diverse, decentralized; private-sector; increasing convergence of telephony, TV, film, newspapers, and periodicals into "ubiquitous" web and wireless-based digital information on-demand. Increasing economic (and other) challenges to traditional media forms via new "social" media, web-based and mobile "news aggregator" services, the "blogosphere," etc. Recent failure of several major newspapers and other media forms as a result of these challenges. However, also growth in print media, particularly small-press books, newspapers and magazines using micro-based production technologies. Redefinition of the concept of "mass" communication.

General Television Differences Between the U.S. and Finland

1. Wholly private control vs. mixed state-private; in U.S. no viewer-license fees, programming almost purely market-directed
2. Much greater diversity of programming, esp. via cable, satellite
3. Number of channels, daily broadcast hours, type and quality of program content
4. Speed and influence of new development: cable TV, direct satellite reception, digital TV, general regulation and accessability.

General U.S. TV/Radio Statistics and Comparisons

1. There were ca. 111.4 million TV homes (99% of electrical homes) in the U.S. in 2006/2007, with an average 2.8 TV sets per household, vs. 2.5 people per household (Nielsen 2006, AP 21Sept06).
2. 82% of TV homes have more than one TV set, 66% have 3 or more sets and one or more DVRs (digital video recorders) and/or VCRs (video cassette recorders); the average home has more than six radios.
3. 64% of TV homes have [wired] cable access, with 28% TV homes having digital cable; 23% of TV homes have satellite access. Cable or satellite TV is available to virtually all TV homes (2006 TV stats, 2003 for radio).
4. As of 30 Sept 2003, the FCC listed 13,450 licensed broadcast radio stations in the United States (every station with a set of call letters and a frequency). Of these, roughly 10,000 are commercial stations, with the remainder being 2,500 non-commercial.
5. As of 2002, the FCC reported a total 1,994 broadcast and cable TV 'stations', with 1,686 of these being broadcast stations and the remaining 308 cable 'stations'.
6. The average U.S. TV viewer receives 104.2 TV channels (Nielsen 2006). Of these, the average household tunes in to 15.7 of the available channels for at least 10 minutes each week.
7. The average household receives 17+ broadcast [OTA] TV stations; 58% of all homes can receive 15 or more broadcast TV stations, and 36% can receive 20 or more broadcast stations (Nielsen 2006).
8. TV viewing is sharply differentiated by age, as well as by ethnicity, gender and other factors. A majority of teens, over half of all schoolchildren, and even nearly a third of toddlers have their own TV sets (2001).
9. Access to TV and radio less expensive in the U.S. than in Finland via lower costs of new and used equipment, lack of viewer-license fees, and a larger & more competitive market; however, for cell phone & net access, etc., there is little difference; Finland can be less expensive and more efficient (if for no other reason than the inefficiency of competing standards in the U.S.)
10. U.S. television programming (and films, etc.) comprise a significant "soft power" [see also Nye's original article (PDF)] internationally, with program popularity and viewership abroad often exceeding that in the U.S. (NYT, 01 Dec 08). Yet what is the image of America and Americans projected by the popular media?

American Television Broadcast 'Networks'

1. Four well-established large general commercial networks
   1. ABC (American Broadcasting Company)
   2. CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System)
   3. NBC-Universal (2004), formerly NBC (National Broadcasting Corporation)
   4. FOX (since 1986; ABC, CBS & NBC since the 1940s)
      Has defined itself as a channel for religiously-conservative and "patriotic" viewers
2. The national non-commercial PBS (Public Broadcasting System) network
3. An expanding variety of 'newer' (general and specialized) commercial networks
   1. The CW Network
   2. MyNetwork TV (replaced the former WB and UPN)
   3. ION Television (replaced the former PAX TV)
   4. Telemundo (Spanish-language only)
   5. Univision (Spanish-language only)
   6. Gannett TV
   7. The Hallmark Channel, etc.
4. Until recently have been limited to 7 (3) affiliates; proposals to abolish limits
5. Other, newer and smaller networks
   1. Religious networks (3ABN, CTN, CTVN, Daystar, Faith TV, Workship, etc.)
   2. Special-audience networks (Spanish, Russian, German, French, etc.)
   3. All-news and all-weather networks
   4. Home shopping networks
   5. Occasional state-wide educational networks
   6. And a wide variety of others . . .
6. Dozens of cable "networks", including CNN, ESPN, C-SPAN, Nickelodeon, Disney Channel, Home Box Office (HBO), Showtime, etc. nationally, and many local cable "packages."
7. 'Public access television' a feature of many cable services

DTV ("Digital TV") vs HDTV ("High Definition Digital TV")

1. Most TV programming is already sent via "digital" (as well as "analog") transmission. The quality of digital signals ranges from SDTV ("standard definition TV" = 480 'lines' of screen data) through EDTV ("enhanced-definition TV" = 720 'lines') up to HDTV ("high-definition TV" = 1080 'lines'). However, relatively few TV sets currently have digital tuners, which may cost ca. $250 per set more.
2. Both analog and digital signals may be "broadcast" via "DTT" = "digital terrestrial TV") or "narrowcast" via cable or satellite.
3. Built-in digital capability will be required of all new TV sets by July 2007 (as opposed to "set-top box" digital adapters), and big-screen TVs (36 inches or larger) as of July 2004. Sets with screens under 13 inches are currently exempt.
4. 17 Feb 2009 is the current (as of December 2005) date set by Congress for complete switchover from analog to digital programming (see www.dtv.gov). Previously it had been 31 Dec 2006 or else the point when 85% of U.S. TV households received digital signals. See also Transition to Digital Gets Closer (NYT, 20 Dec 2005).

Identification Characteristics of Broadcast TV Stations

1. Local TV stations (all restricted-area, local broadcast only), identified by "call letters" (WABC, KLX); may be "independent" or "network affiliate" stations
   1. VHF stations, channels 2-13
   2. UHF stations, channels 14 -->
2. All significant income from commercial advertising sold during broadcast time; dependent on quantity and quality of listening audience (determined by "ratings")

Background of a "Typical" Local TV (Broadcast) Station

1. FCC (Federal Communications Commission — Executive Branch) licensing requirements
   1. Financial and technical resources to run station
   2. Provide "public interest" alternative to available broadcasting
   3. No "excessive influence" on overall local media, though there are proposals to abolish these limits
2. Program sources: (1) make your own, (2) purchase from agents, (3) affiliate with a network
3. Advantages of network affiliation; however, programming can be at most 75% network; remainder local origin
4. Independent stations: must specialize in programs of sufficient local interest
5. Exact log of broadcast time/schedule must be kept; station subject to criticism by local audience and to bankruptcy through loss of viewers or cancellation of license if enough valid complaints about programming

Determination of Programming Content

1. The "ratings" systems: A.C. Nielsen (plus TNS Media Intelligence, etc.): how their minute-by-minute and second-by-second audience measurements work; data produced; continuous monitoring & "sweeps" 4x yearly, "prime time"
   1. %-age of total viewer market
   2. %-age of specialized markets, highly specific
   3. Nielsen: 5000 random families in national "people meter" survey; 20,000 other households in local metering; more than 1 million others complete diaries 1 week per year, plus 330,000 'set-top box' households for the second-by-second measurements. Also ethnic supplements (cf 800 additional Hispanic households).
2. Give the customer what he wants; network "copy" syndrome; "Gresham's law" on choices?
   1. "community morality censorship"
   2. influence of program sponsors on program content?
3. Commercialism: classic examples of (a) Beverly Hillbillies reruns; (b) Sears vs local weather report, etc.
4. National vs local advertising time: who sells what?
5. Programming regulation by FCC and NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) FCC "fairness doctrine" and "equal time" stipulations; NAB "Blue Book" guidelines
   • local station responsibility, 'classic' lawsuits: Zamora vs Dugger (Florida, 1977); and Olivia Niemi vs NBC & KRON-TV (California, 1978)
6. Advertising policy: (a) 1 product per commercial; (b) no more than 5 consecutive commercials, or (c) 8.5 min/ad/hour; (d) no liquor, smoking, contraceptives, etc. But, lawsuits against NAB claim illegal restrictions on advertising (freedom of speech). Possibility of more restrictive local community sanctions

The Public Broadcasting System (PBS)

1. Also network/affiliate, but no commercial advertising (although "sponsor credits" are allowed, with restrictions)
2. Memberships sold in local stations, foundation grants to national PBS and to local stations for production of special programs; local membership services
3. Connections with local school systems; university courses; adult education
4. High percentage of imported programs, chiefly British

Cable Development and Influence

1. Early CATV brought existing broadcasts into homes with improved reception
2. Large-capacity cables now installed make transmission of TV, FM radio, other programs minimal-cost vs. broadcast
3. Cable operators required to relay at no extra cost all broadcast services in the local area; additional channels are added in 'standard' packages on a competitive basis.
4. Availability of private subscription services in addition to standard options
5. Cable-TV "narrowcasting" has opened program options
6. "Community-access" cablecasting, 'Public-access' TV, initial 1970s interactive QUBE experiment in Ohio, but mostly lack of interest thus far, though interactivity technology is available
7. Direct satellite reception for rural areas
   1. Copyright, market protection, license fee issues; "scramblers"
   2. Technology & market bringing costs down; future?

Radio Broadcasting Services

1. AM and FM-stereo stations; local vs "clear channel" AM stations)
2. Much more locally-oriented than TV, less network dependence
   1. MBS [Mutual Broadcasting System]
   2. NPR [National Public Radio] (both these radio-only)
3. Great specialization and variety of stations: music and news dominate, but also talk shows, religion, market, neighborhood, etc.; former 12-station ownership limit now 30 AM and 30 FM per owner, allowing more expansion
4. Church/religious radio stations, university stations, etc
5. "Citizens band" radio; International VOA, RFE/RL, etc.; "ham" radio...

Newspapers: National vs Local Papers

1. Considerable difference between U.S. and other developed countries in circulation and patterns;
2. (1992) ca 62.6%, [115.3 million] read daily newspapers; ca. 4 million more read Sunday editions
3. Only a few American newspapers of national importance
   1. New York Times, "national paper of record," Index, Sunday edition with 12-15 sections, incl Magazine, Book Review
   2. Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, USA Today, etc.
4. Daily tabloid "man-on-the-street" papers (N.Y. Daily News, N.Y. Post, etc.)
5. Regional papers: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Chicago Tribune, Atlanta Constitution, Louisville Courier, L.A. Times, San Francisco Chronicle, Boston Globe, etc.
6. National specific sector papers: Women's Wear Daily, Variety, Billboard, Christian Science Monitor, etc.
7. Scandal or Sensational papers: National Inquirer, etc.
8. Local papers: most important due to decentralized local nature of American politics, (local Congressional Election districts, etc.)

Popular Periodicals: Subscription or Newsstand Sales

1. TV Guide, Reader's Digest, Sports Illustrated, National Geographic, etc. all national sales leaders
2. News periodicals: Time, Newsweek, U.S. News & World Report, etc.
3. Cultural magazines: Atlantic, New Yorker, Downbeat, Ebony, etc.
4. Men's mags: Playboy, Esquire, Hustler, Gentleman's Quarterly...
5. Women's mags: Playgirl, Cosmopolitan, Ladies' Home Journal, Women's Day, McCalls, Vogue...
6. Financial: Fortune, Business Week, Money, Barron's Index
7. Business, Education, Hobby, etc: Infoworld, PC, MacWorld, Car & Driver, Rod & Stream, Popular Mechanics, Popular Science, American Heritage
8. Children's: Sesame Street, Humpty Dumpty, Cricket...
9. Sports, Hobby, General travel & leisure, Consumer...
10. Newsletters: small-circulation, quick information, $$

Elite Periodicals: Meant For Special, Informed, 'Intellectual' Audiences

1. New York Review of Books
2. Foreign Affairs, Foreign Quarterly, Foreign Policy
3. Scientific American, Technology Review, etc.
4. Partisan Review, Commentary, The New Republic, etc.
5. Scholarly journals, mainly professional and university library sales only, expensive

Trend Toward More Specialized Information Accessing

1. Mass general-circulation magazines of the 40s and 50s, like Life, Look, Saturday Evening Post
2. Special-audience (specific-interest) magazines, as a result of computerized indexing of consumer interests
3. Internet access to data banks (Nexis, Lexus, various government and private databanks, newspapers, etc., via direct connection or the web): major improvement in efficient information access. Consequences for libraries, print information, phone and postal service, advertising and direct marketing? Handicapped people? Transportation and housing patterns cf "telecommuting"?
4. Larger social consequence: increased fragmentation of American society as former 'national unity' media are superceded by highly individualized and/or special sector media? Challenges to 'public interest'? 'Convergence' as unifying factor in future?

Telephone Service, mid-80s "divestiture" of A.T.& T. ("Ma Bell")

1. Telephone service traditionally efficient and low-cost; expectations
2. Computerized billing, itemized long-distance calls, choice of service types and rates
3. "700", "800" & "900" numbers, WATS lines, 3-point calls, conference calls, reverse-charge calls, direct mail-order billing to phone account, personal universal phone numbers
4. Local costs formerly held down by long-distance subsidies
5. 1984 Divestiture makes new private telephone services possible in addition to AT&T (Sprint, MCI, 'baby Bells', etc.). In 21st century, former corporate parts now re-merging
6. Telephone Service Changing Into "Mass" Medium, with "Personal" access to "mass" services such as direct mail, telemarketing, computerized phone solicitation, voice mail, portable phones, answering machines, message relay
7. Cell phone service fragmented between CDMA, TDMA, GSM, and analog, reliance on "local" operators who cannot interconnect, "bundled" service/phone packages

Book Publishing

1. Ca. 172,000 new titles annually (2005; aaupnet.org); lower cost of publishing but higher cost of marketing; how to 'break in' and sell?
2. Book costs relatively low, but short turnover time and shelf-space are problems. "Remaindered" discounted books
3. Shopping-Center Mentality of book market? B. Dalton, Waldenbooks & Borders Books as national franchises, influence on book publishers, consumers, low-cost and availability. Challenge to these of Amazon.com and web-based sales
4. "Small Press" counterforce to mass-market publishers, specialized topics & audiences, direct-marketing with computerized mailing lists, advertising in specialized publications; web and internet marketing
5. Growth of "vanity presses" to get books out (ca 40,000 annually; 2005), hoping they may be picked up by commercial publishers