FINDINGS

Institutions Surveyed

Journalism education in sub-Saharan black Africa dates back to February 1959 when the first journalism training institution in the region, the Ghana Institute of Journalism, was established. The rapid attainment of political independence in the 1960s and 1970s and the development of communication infrastructure in black Africa witnessed a parallel rapid growth in the number of journalism and communication training institutions in the region. Thus by 1986, there were 35 institutions providing journalism and communication education at one level or another in the (sub-Saharan) Anglophone countries alone. Out the 35 institutions,22 were pre-University and 13 were University-based. The survey covered all those institutions (see Annex 5).

Table 1 below contains a summary by nation of the levels of communication education offered in the institutions and the number of students enrolled as well as full-time teaching staff at the time of the survey.

Country	Number of institutions	Professional diploma/certificate	Bachelor´s	Postgrad. diploma	Master´s	Ph.D.	Student enrolment (1986)	Teaching staff strength (1986)
Ghana	3	2		1	1		248	38
Liberia	1		1				47	4
Nigeria	19	15	7	3	3	1	2,931	140
Sub-total for West-Africa	23	17	8	4	4	1	3,226	182
Kenya	4	2	1	1	1		100	10
Uganda	1	1					15	3
Tanzania	2	2					75	7
Zambia	4	3	1				130	13
Zimbabwe	1	1					50	5
Sub-total for East-Southern Africa	12	9	2	1	1		370	38
Grand total	35	26	10	5	5	1	3,596	220

* Some institutions offer programmes at more than one level.

Typically, the pre-University level institutions offer programmes which varied from short-term certificate courses of only a few weeks' duration to two-year diploma programmes; a few institutions in Nigeria and one in Ghana also run four-year higher diploma programmes (for details, see Annex 6). So-called postgraduate diploma programmes are offered by three schools in Nigeria, one in Ghana and one in Kenya; students in these postgraduate diploma programmes usually have a first degree but not necessarily in journalism/communication. Moreover, some of the University-based~ institutions provide short-term courses, in addition to their academic degree programmes.

Normal master's degree is given in five institutions: the School of Communication Studies at the University of Ghana, the Nigerian Universities in Lagos, Nsukka and Ibadan as well as the Daystar University College in Kenya. Doctoral level programme is offered by only one institution in black Africa: the Department of Mass Communication at the University of Lagos in Nigeria.

Most of the journalism and communication training institutions in Anglophone sub-Saharan Africa are in the West African region where most students were enrolled when the study was carried out. Nigeria had the largest number of students. On the average, each of the 19 institutions in Nigeria had about 150 students on enrolment whereas all three institutions in Ghana enrolled a total of 248 students and the one in Liberia had 47 students at the time of the survey. In the East and Southern African countries, the average number of students enrolled in each of the institutions was 15, with the exception of the Department of Mass Communication, University of Zambia, which had 75 students.

With regard to the teaching staff, virtually all the institutions surveyed were understaffed. There was a total of 220 full-time faculty members in all 35 institutions. To supplement this full-time teaching staff and to reduce the teaching load that each member had to carry, most of the institutions relied on the services of part-time teachers .

Teaching Facilities

Most of the institutions have their own libraries. For example, 16 of the 23 institutions in West Africa have libraries located within their own premises. The institutions also have access to such other libraries as the main University library, the national or state and other public libraries and libraries of foreign embassies -usually the British Council and the United States Information Services. However, with a few exceptions, the institutions' own libraries are often small, with the number of copies of textbooks, journals, magazines and other materials typically estimated to be only about 200. For example, while the Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and the Ghana Institute of Journalism had holdings which run into a few thousands, the Department of Mass Communication at the University of Liberia had less than 100 books and periodicals which were stored in the office of the head of department.

Only a few institutions are able to purchase books and periodicals every year to increase the holdings in their libraries. For most, the budget to buy new books has been practically non-existent during the past few years mainly because of the acute foreign exchange constraints facing African countries. Most institutions produce handouts (cyclostyled) for their students to offset the effect of the shortage of books and other teaching materials. A few institutions - for example, five in West Africa - also reported that they had published or were preparing teaching material of a more solid nature, though only a few of these may be classified as real textbooks. Thus the Department of Mass Communication at the Universities of Lagos, Bayero and Nsukka indicated they had published textbooks in the last five years. In the East and Southern African region, only the Division of Mass Communication at the Harare Polytechnic in Zimbabwe and the Zambian Institute of Mass Communication had publishec some textbooks in the last five years (with the sponsorship of mainly the Friedrich Naumann Foundation).

Eighteen of the institutions had training or laboratory newspapers, although many of them were published irregularly as resources for such publications were reported to be meagre and usually non-recurrent. The Department of Mass Communication, University of Zambia had a unique arrangement with a commercial newspaper through which the paper produced two pages in each issue by journalism students.

Seven institutions in West Africa and two in East and Southern Africa had radio and television studios; most of the others had only radio studios. The studios were mainly used by students to produce programmes as part of their training. Most of the studios were poorly equipped and only a few institutions had annual budget allocations for programme productions. Although the institutions did not specifically carry out radio and television production for national broadcasting, a few of their programmes were occasionally broadcast by the state or national broadcasting organizations. A typical example here is the National Film and Television Institute in Ghana whose programmes are occasionally broadcast by the national television station.

Most of the institutions had photojournalism laboratories but these facilities were not being fully utilised because of lack of funds to purchase films and printing materials. Also, there were hardly any audio-visual teaching materials in the institutions surveyed, except for a few in Nigeria, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Textbooks Used

1. Print Journalism which comprises reporting, editing, feature writing, photojournalism and graphic arts; 2. Broadcast Journalism; 3. Advertising and Public Relations; 4. Mass Media History and Law; 5. Mass Communication Theory and Research; 6. Development Communication.

The total number of different textbooks identified in the survey as being used in each of the six principal course areas in all 35 institutions is presented in Table 2. It is worth noting here that some textbooks were mentioned as being used in more than one course. To obtain a real picture of the textbook situation, multiple listings have been deleted in the analysis presented here.

Over 300 different textbooks used in various subject areas of journalism and mass communication were identified. One book was often used in more than one institution, but the frequency of use is not recorded here. Sometimes a particular textbook (for example, the McBride Commission Report) was used in more than one course area, as shown by multiple listings in Annex 6. The number of textbooks would have exceeded 400 had all handouts or cyclostyled materials been included. The present inventory, based on listings in Annex 6, includes only publications generally available and to be found in regular bibliographies. As shown by Table 2 and Annex 6, the course areas best covered are reporting and editing for the print media, is also fairly well covered, with 51 different textbooks identified as being used in all the institutions.The course which has least textbook support is development communication where only 13 books were being used throughout the survey area.

The data on textbooks available in the institutions were further analysed in terms of areas and period of publication. Table 3 gives a summary of the findings on the geographical area of publication of the identified textbooks (in 5 cases the place of publication is unknown).

Course Area	Africa	W. Europe	U.S.	Australia	India	Total
1. Print Journalism	6	20	67		1	94
2. Broadcast Journalism	4	18	29			51
3. Advertising and Public Relations		7	34			41
4. Mass Media History and Law	6	16	11	1		34
5. Mass Communication
Theory and Research	2	11	64		1	78
6. Development Communication	2	1	10			13
Grand total	20	73	215	1	2	311

Table 3 shows that textbooks used in journalism and communication training institutions in Anglophone black Africa come mainly from the industrialized West, especially the United States of America. Of the 311 textbooks identified here, 215 or 69 percent were published in the U. S. A. alone, while 73 books or 24 percent have a Western European, especially British or French, publisher. In other words, 93 percent of the textbooks have a Western origin. In most cases, the authors of the textbooks - with their orientations -come from the country of the publisher, although the increasingly transnational character of book publishing makes it sometimes difficult to determine the real nationality of a book.

Books published in Asia, Latin America and other Third World regions are practically non-existent. The survey identified only two books published in Asia, i. e. India (one in print journalism and another in mass communication theory and research). Completely absent are textbooks from East European countries (including books published by the IOJ). Unesco and other international organizations figure among the publishers only in a few cases.

"Local" textbooks or books produced in Africa and meant specifically for African students are also relatively few. Only 20 or 6 percent of the textbooks listed as being currently used in the various institutions originate from the African region, mainly from Nigeria. A few African textbooks were located particularly in the areas of print journalism, mass communication history and media law. But even in courses where local textbooks had been published, most institutions outside the country of publication did not have copies either because of lack of knowledge about the availability of such textbooks or lack of financial resources to import them. In addition to the books produced in African countries, there were 15 other books which, though published outside of Africa, dealt with African journalism and communication issues.

Table 4 present findings about the period of publication of the available textbooks (again in few cases the data are missing).

Most of the textbooks were published in the decades before 1980. Table 4 shows that 70 percent of the textbooks available in journalism and communication training institutions in the English-speaking countries were published before the 1980s. About 20 percent or 58 of the textbooks were published before 1970 and 50 percent or 153 were published in the period 1970 - 1979 when most of the institutions were being established. Only about 30 percent or 91 textbooks are relatively recent and published in the 1980s. This situation no doubt reflects the scarcity of funds, especially foreign exchange, to purchase more recent editions or new textbooks.

The Eastern and Southern African part of the survey compared the number of copies of each textbook with the number of students in need of them. It turned out that it is only in exceptional cases that all the students or even half of them could each have access to a copy of a book. In most cases, only a single teacher's copy was available and this could usually not be photocopied for the students because photocopiers were either unavailable or were not in working condition.

All the institutions had documented syllabi for all courses they taught but in some cases severe shortage of multiple copies of the same textbooks made it impracticable or meaningless for teachers to indicate readings in syllabi. Also, mainly because of the non-availability of new textbooks, there were hardly any yearly variations in required or recommended reading materials. Essential readings from books were often duplicated on stencil and given to students as handouts. But the number of chapters that could be reproduced was often limited. The result was that students complained of lack of information to enable them to compare and contrast the basic information given them in the handouts. This was particularly noticeable in theoretical subjects such as mass communication.

The survey also indicated a scarcity of recent issues of professional and scholarly journalism and mass communication journals which often serve as sources of teaching materials. Most of the journals available in most of the institutions were dated; the only recent journals were those produced by journalism and mass communication associations based in the African region such as the African Council on Communication Education (ACCE) which publishes the Africa Media Review and the African Communication Association (ACA) which produces the African Communication Review.

Materials Needed

Replies to questions concerning felt needs for new textbooks and other teaching materials pointed at both insufficient textbooks and inadequate equipment. With regard to equipment, respondents expressed the need for radio and television studio equipment and other audio-visual materials such as projectors and slides, videorecorders and both audio and video tapes, photo-copying machines, typewriters and typesetting machines. The need was also expressed for periodicals and journals in broadcasting, journalism and communication.

The needs for textbooks were most varied; typical answers referred to all courses taught - from practical skills courses in print and broadcast journalism, public relations and advertising to courses in communication history, media law, theory and research and development communication. There were as many teachers who mentioned textbooks of a general nature as those who pointed out books treating specific areas of journalism and communication. Regardless of the subject area, most replies requested for textbooks with a local - i. e. national or African - emphasis providing local examples and dealing with the subject from an African perspective.

Here are some examples of answers given to the question "What kind of teaching materials are most urgently needed ? "

"I need a subbing text to the Kenyan situation."
"We need a textbook on African humour."
"We need a law textbook that treats the copyright law, film censorship and defamation law of Tanzania."
"I need a basic photography book but which gives the local dos and don'ts in photography in our region."
"We need texts in newsgathering, newswriting, investigative reporting and feature writing. They should all
approach their topic from the local angle."
"We need a textbook on mass communication in Africa and the developing world. We also need another text on mass communication in Kenya."

All the institutions surveyed were willing to participate in a project of producing and testing new textbooks and teaching materials. Some of the institutions said they would be able to provide some of the teaching materials themselves. Those who said they could not do this cited inadequate financial resources as well as lack of teachers as the main constraining factors. The survey identified 43 textbook titles which teachers who were interviewed said they were or would be working on in a textbook development project. A list of the possible textbook contributions and proposed authors is produced in Annex 7.Table 5 presents the various course areas where respondents were willing to contribute texts.

Course Area Number of Proposed Textbooks

While the needs for new teaching materials and the plans to produce them are strikingly similar throughout the institutions and countries surveyed, it is obvious that the teachers concerned are not fully informed about each other - neither about the needs and plans of others nor about the local materials already used by others. The minimal contact among teachers is particularly so in the pre-University level institutions of journalism and communication. Even the few African materials that exist seem to be underutilized. Indeed, data from the survey indicate that few teachers in journalism and communication institutions look to other African countries for new textbooks and other teaching materials. Partly because the overwhelming majority of textbooks in use in the institutions comes from North America and Western Europe, most teachers expect and are more likely to acquire any new textbooks from those regions rather than from Africa or other parts of the developing world. There is an obvious need for better regional exchange of information and cooperation in the field of textbooks and teaching materials .

Summary of Findings and Limitations of the Survey

First of all, the survey provided basic information about the institutions which give journalism education in Anglophone sub-Saharan Africa. In all there are35 such institutions,over half of which (19) are located in Nigeria alone. The other seven Anglophone countries in West, East and Southern Africa have one to four institutions for journalism education each. Most of the 35 institutions offer professional diploma programmes, and about half of them offer an academic degree (undergraduate, graduate or postgraduate). The total number of students enrolled was found to be about 3,600 (nearly 3,000 of them in Nigeria). The number of full-time teachers turned out to be 220. The survey reached 79 of these faculty members or more than one third of all.

The survey found a general shortage of suitable textbooks and teaching materials, especially textbooks adapted to local conditions and circumstances. Only six percent of the 316 textbooks identified being used in various journalism and mass communication courses have an African origin. The rest of the Third World with similar development perspectives has only a token position among the textbooks used; two books from India were identified, and nothing for example from Latin America. Likewise, there were no textbooks from the socialist countries of Eastern Europe identified in this survey.

An overwhelming majority of the textbooks now in use - 93 percent - proved out to be from the West. Over two thirds - 69 percent - are published in the United States alone. West European countries, mainly United Kingdom and France, figure among the publishers in 24 percent of the cases. Some of the latter are Unesco publications (e. g. the MacBride Report), and as such should of course not be taken as "Western" but rather as "universal"; however, they are so few that the overall picture of Western dominance remains valid.

Most of the textbooks are relatively old and, moreover, it was found that textbooks and other teaching materials exist in very limited quantities and that there were few facilities for copying or excerpting them. Thus in most institutions, many students are compelled to share a limited number of texts.

The survey further revealed an inadequate level of communication and a limited knowledge among the institutions of the relatively small number of available African textbooks.

Finally, the survey identified a strong desire among teachers in the institutions to participate in a project to develop textbooks and other teaching materials for journalism and communication training institution in Africa.

Although the survey touched all relevant institutions and made an attempt to cover all relevant courses as well there obviously are some omissions and thus the textbooks identified should not be taken as a comprehensive collection.

However, we have all reason to conclude that it is quite a representative collection. It is more than an indicative sample but less than a full inventory.

It should also be noted that the concept of textbook is not perfectly clear. Typically it is understood to mean a course handbook (e. g. training manuals), required or recommended reading for the students. But it can also mean a sourcebook or reference book for the teacher. Since the survey was in practice teacher-centered, it appears that the textbooks identified were often of the second kind. Therefore it can be said that the survey covered indeed teaching material rather than study material.

Textbooks should naturally be seen as part and parcel of a course outline or syllabus and ultimately in context of an overall curriculum. The present survey was just an inventory of teaching materials without assessing their relation to curricula and thus their proper function and significance. In this respect it is obvious that textbooks play very different roles at different levels of courses and programmes - from a vocational diploma to a specialized MA.