by John van Zyl

The scope, purpose and future of media education in a transitional South Africa first came under the scrutiny of a wide array of academics, teachers and community or grassroots workers at a conference entitled "Developing Media Education in the 1990's" which was held by the media Resources Centre, Natal University, Durban from 11 to 13 September 1990. The proceedings were published as "Media Matters in South Africa."

Up to that time media education and communication studies were fragmented, varying widely from institution to institution. Progressive institutions devoted their time to reactive protests against the misuse of state broadcasting media and the bootlicking attitude of the Afrikaans press, while also criticising the neutrality of the English liberal press. Conservative Afrikaans institutions taught decontextualised, formal communications courses or else supported the state in its repressive policies.

From the time the Nationalists first came to power in 1948 there was little opportunity to develop any cohesive popular theory of communication in South Africa. Film censorship was strict, no films from Third World countries were ever distributed. Radio (introduced in 1934) and television (introduced in 1976) were the mouthpieces of the state. Calvinism, white supremacy and nationalism went hand-in-hand.

By the mid-Seventies certain progressive universities had started teaching communications studies, television theory, film history and the relationship between ideology and media. The methodology was derived from semiotics, discourse analysis and a Marxist critique of ownership of the media.

By the mid-Eighties the study of film had become part of the syllabus at certain white high schools. Grassroots video groups and community filmmaking groups had started to support their practical teaching by introducing students to media theory. Liberation movements were making subversive documentaries and were aware of radical film groups like Cinema Nova in Brazil.

Since the conference the situation has been changing perceptibly. Driven by the demands of increasing numbers of black students at all the educational and training facilities, curricula have had to be adapted. An active "Africanisation" programme has been adopted by many university departments.

Aided by the visits of African filmmakers like Soulymane Cissi of Mali and Gaston Gabore of Burkina Faso to the "Weekly Mail" film festivals, and by the establishment of progressive media groups like the Film and Allied Workers Organisation, communications and media workers have reached out beyond the borders of the country.

But what the 1990 conference did was to formally question the powerfully Eurocentric and elitist nature of media studies in South Africa and suggest a re-evaluation of communication education. Most handbooks that were being used originated in the United States of England. Scant attention was paid to the history of the local film industry and little was known about filmmaking or the media industry in the rest of Africa.

Many political changes also began to take place after the February 2nd 1990 speech of President de Klerk unbanning the ANC and freeing Nelson Mandela. There was a refocussing of the energies of the liberation struggle towards internal reorganisation and education, and progressive communication and media studies were subjected to critical evaluation centred on human rights in broadcasting and the use of media in development and education.

As an example, the May 1991 issue of the South African Theatre Journal was specially devoted to South African film. The editor Edwin Hees of Stellenbosch University write significantly in his editorial:

"(A) thread that runs through the articles is their insistence on what could broadly be described as a sense of history (i.e. a sense of context, "then" and "now") in dealing with South African film. The approaches and emphases in the article differ but the inadequacy of purely formalist analysis at this point in our history is a clear implication."

It was obvious that the theme of the 1990 conference was now beginning to make itself felt in critical discourse. Another journal that has contributed to the media debate is Critical Arts with its narrowly focussed Marxist critique of the hegemony of the South African Broadcasting Corporation, the liberal English press and a conservative academic tradition.

Although labels are always inadequate and subject to changing interpretations, one may say that the conference, the SATJ editorial and Critical Arts are representative of the broad band of progressive communications and media positions in South Africa held by the English-speaking universities.

It runs from a leftwing, Gramscian, materialist media theory that acknowledges the contribution of the Birmingham School of Stuart Hall to a softer human rights stance drawing its ideological nourishment from the work of Raymond Williams, Foucault, Barthes and the "Many Voices, One World" UNESCO volume. Paulo Freire is essential reading for the grassroots scene.

Afrikaans universities still tend towards a more conservative phenomenological or formalist stance, although the University of South Africa communications journal Communicatio has recently begun to lend its voice to a critique of conservative communications teaching.

At present South Africa has many universities, technikons and community groups involved with teaching communications in all its aspects. Historically, the Afrikaans universities introduced communications training and studies sooner and in greater concentration than their English-speaking counterparts.

This is probably due both to their historical connection between continental universities (which have always had an established journalism/communications teaching tradition). Conversely, the influence of the more conservative English and Scottish universities on local English universities has held back the development of communications studies and journalism training.

Interestingly, communications departments were introduced into some of the so-called "tribal universities" (Zululand, Durban-Westville, Forth Hare) rather than at English universities which have a greater tradition of liberal thought.

The quality and numbers of trained journalists, broadcasters and professional communicators with a heritage of liberal thought has suffered from this legacy. The South African Broadcasting Corporation (which has served as the mouthpiece of the racist Nationalist regime for so long) traditionally draws its journalists from the most conservative Afrikaans universities (Potchefstroom, Orange Free State and Rand Afrikaans University). The "homeland" University of Boputhatswana has links with the local radio and television station, which imposes certain restrictions on broadcast material.

The following is a list of all the institutions and the relevant departments.

Journalism departments:

Rhodes University, Department of Journalism and Media Studies.

Stellenbosch University, Department of Journalism.

Communication departments:

University of South Africa

Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education

Rand Afrikaans University

University of Zululand

University of the Orange Free State

University of Fort Hare

University of Boputhatswana.

Related Departments.

University of Witwatersrand, School of Dramatic Art. (Parallel training in Television/Media and Theatre Arts)

University of Natal, Centre for Cultural and Media Studies. (Postgraduate only)

Drama Departments. (Media as a small component)

University of Durban-Westwille

Universty of Pretoria

University of Zululand

University of Natal (Durban)

University of Natal (Pietermaritzburg)

University of Cape Town

University of Stellenbosch

Rhodes University

University of Cape Town

University of the Orange Free State

2. Technikons (Non-degree professional diploma training)

Witwatersrand Technikon, Communication department

Port Elizabeth Technikon, Communication department

Pretoria technikon, School of Communication

Veal Triangle Technikon, Department of Public Relations

Natal Technikon, Department of Journalism and Public Relations

M.L. Sultan Technikon, Department of Journalism

Peninsula Technikon, Department of Art and Design.

Film and Allied Workers Organisation Video Group (Johannesburg)

Film Resource Center (Johannesburg)

Alexandra Community Video group (Johannesburg)

SACHED (Johannesburg)

Rural Development Programme (Johannesburg)

Media Resource Centre (Durban)

Durban Media Trainers group

Community Arts Programme Media Group (Cape Town

Communicatio. University of South Africa

Communicare. Rand Afrikaans University

Equus. University of the Orange Free State

Critical Arts. University of Natal

South African Theatre Journal. Witwatersrand University

Publishing in South Africa is a vigorous and highly competitive business. All the major international publishers either have their own offices in the country or else are represented by agents.

This means that the major American communications textbook publishers like McGraw Hill, or English publishers like Manchester University Press or Blackwells always have their latest catalogues circulating amongst the various teaching institutions, which means that prescribed books are constantly being updated.

The tendency at present seems to be for international publishers to pull out of West and East African countries and only keep their South African operation. (Heineman has divested in Kenya and Zimbabwe and only retained its Nigerian and South African branches.)

A severe economic recession affects Africa as a whole, and even South Africa cannot escape its effects. This has produced several trends. The unfavourable rate of exchange has made the cost of books prohibitely high, putting them out of reach of all except wealthy students, or students on good scholarships. A misconceived book tax on imported books further puts them out of reach. The availability of books must therefore be offset against the cost.

On the other hand, there are many local communications textbooks available that have been commissioned by local publishers, or have been published as unsolicited manuscript. Another tactic has been to adapt a popular international handbook for local conditions. These books are usually reasonably priced and are widely prescribed by large departments like the University of South Africa Communications Department. Because UNISA is a distance-teaching university this department is unusually large (nearly 5,000 students spread all over Africa) which makes it a potentially lucrative market for textbooks.

White high schools have for the past five years included film study as a component for the matriculation syllabus. During 1993 all schooling will become non-racial under one education department. This large market will necessitate a rewritten school handbook suited to local conditions.

Some publishers have very active communications sections and the following is a list of them:

Juta's, an long-established educational publisher is perhaps the best-known of these and has many communications textbooks on its list. These include two books by P. Fourie "Aspects of film and television communication" and "Critical television analyses", G.M. du Plooy's "Communication concepts" as well as N. Jansen's "Philosophy of mass communication" and "Theoretical approaches to mass communication."

Lexicon Publishers specialise in communications handbooks for technikons. Robin Gilfillan, the Managing Director states that their communication books focus on the needs of the local student and that they commission most of their textbooks. A popular handbook is "Communication" by Frost, Vos and Meyer. The sections include "Theory" (Models and terminology, non-verbal communications, types of communication), and "Communication in Practice" dealing with intercultural communication which is very relevant for any local course on communication in the workplace and in society. "Language Communication" by H van Schalkwyk deals with ways of improving communication and language skills. The target audience is a local professional one. Other titles deal with communication in commerce, and with students whose communication problems stem from being second language speakers of English.

Butterworth Publishers publishes two local textbooks "Bridges to communication" by S.A. Court, written specially for tertiary second language students that need to upgrade their communication skills and "Professional Persuasion" by S. Finn, which is a practical guide to the concept of persuasion. They are the local agents for Focal Press with their wide range of media books, Butterworth-Heineman Management Business Studies and Sales and Marketing books and the Wiley publishing house.

Skotaville Publishers was started in 1992 and has established a niche for itself as one of the leading progressive publishers in South Africa. They Executive Secretary Nyamela Makonya states that they were taken by surprise by the 1990 de Klerk speech that released Nelson Mandela and unbanned the African National Congress.

Most of their titles were highly political and supportive of the liberation struggle, indicated by their motto "Publishing by the people, for the people." They were still struggling to adjust to the new needs for handbooks and textbooks and were finding it difficult to break into the educational market since the big publishers had the funds to be able to commission a specialised title.

Skotaville has to rely on both a general and specialised audience to be able to break even and therefore has not been able to develop a communications textbook. This is unfortunate since Skotaville would be an ideal publisher for a handbook grounded in the needs of the local population.

Ravan Press has also been a major publisher of progressive titles for many years, in both fiction and non-fiction. Glenn Moss, the managing Director expressed reservations about the idea of cross-border publishing, or cooperative ventures in publishing communications textbooks with neighbouring states. Most of the so-called "frontline" states had severe problems with currency reserves so that a complicated system of co-publishing had to be devised whereby texts could be generated and type-set in South Africa and then published in a neighbouring country. This could stimulate the publishing industry in other countries.

The role of the African Publishers Network (AFNET) and of the Independent Publishers of South Africa (IPASA) would be crucial in addressing this problem.

Another problem was that of lack of knowledge of curricula in neighbouring countries. A common communicational goal would have to be set before publishing could take place. Moss also expressed reservations about the viability of a specifically communications textbook that does not also appeal to the wider general market. The problem is that although the communications handbook market is large, lack of finances inhibits the potential market. In a depressed labour situation, communication textbooks have to take second place to food and other essentials. Interestingly enough Ravan Press is about to publish a collection of essays by Francis Kasoma on press ethics in Africa.

Hodder and Stoughton Educational publishes the specially written "Image-Wise" by J van Zyl for the local high school film literacy programme.

Anthropos Publishers have published the three Tomaselli edited books on South African media, which are generally regarded as the standard radical Marxist critiques of the media: "The Alternative Press in South Africa", "Broadcasting in South Africa" and "The Press in South Africa".

Witwatersrand University Press is in a typical situation where it has to act as agent for English and American publishers (like Indiana University Press, a major producer of communications handbooks) as well as publishing a small number of locally written academic texts.

Southern Book Publishers publish advertising, public relations and copywriting handbooks used by the Rhodes University School of Journalism and the Vaal Triangle Technikon. Amongst the most frequently prescribed books are Skinner and von Essen "South African Handbook of Public Relations" and Barenblatt and Sinclair "Make the Other Half Work Too."

Maskew Miller / Longmans is another long-established publishing house specialising in school textbooks that has expressed an interest in developing communications handbooks.

The Rhodes University School of Journalism serves as a good example of the mix of communications handbooks used locally. Courses in Theories of mass communication use the standard American textbooks: "Mass Media Research: An Introduction" by Wimmer and Dominick, Wadsworth Publishing Company, California, and "Theories of Mass Communication" by De Fleur and Rokeach, Longmann, New York. The only South African handbook is N Jansen's "Philosophy of Mass Communications", Juta.

All the technical books are American or English (Brady, "Using Type Write", Cincinnati, Campbell "The Designers Handbook", Macdonald, London: Sellers "The Simple Subs Book", Pergamon Press) with the exception of Leahy and Voice "The Media Book 1993/4", WTH Publications, Bryanston, which is an updated index to publishing, advertising and the press.

In Journalism third year A. Fugelsang's "About Understanding: Ideas and Observations on Cross Cultural Communication" and T.G. Verhelst's "No Life Without Roots: Culture and Development" are prescribed, which broadens the African cultural context without being specifically about South Africa.

Useful work is being done by community and grassroots organisations in generating teaching material, not much of which is actually printed commercially.

The Film Resource Unit in Johannesburg uses a slim introduction to "Understanding Television News" written by Claudette Davis which is directly aimed at a community audience. A second small handbook "Introduction to Understanding Documentary" is in preparation.

The media section of the Community Arts Project in Cape Town (Jon Berndt), the Media Resource Centre in Durban (Costa Criticos and Jeanne Prinsloo), and The Durban Media Trainers Group (Julie Frederickse and Anne MacKay) all produce teaching and learning material that takes cultural and political contexts into consideration.